notes
science
mathematics
llm
elements
Properties of the elements in charts and tables.
Author

Stephen J. Mildenhall

Published

2025-08-10

Modified

2025-08-18

Code 
from elements import fGT, Elements, DensityEstimator, Plotter
# quality graphics
%config InlineBackend.figure_formats = ['svg']
df = Elements.df()

Mendeleev (1834-1907) imagined at work on the periodic table.

Mendeleev (1834-1907) imagined at work on the periodic table.

The periodic table is more than a static grid of symbols and numbers. It is a compact map of how the elements behave, interact, and differ. In this post I have assembled charts and tables that bring those patterns into view: crystal structures, densities, melting and boiling points, ionization energies, and more. The aim is to let familiar trends sharpen into focus, highlight anomalies that challenge expectations, and uncover relationships that become clear only when the whole landscape is seen at once.

Some of these features are striking. The rise and fall of ionization energy across each period is sharply defined, with the noble gases forming regular peaks and the alkali metals deep troughs. Mercury stands apart from its neighbors, a liquid metal at room temperature with melting and boiling points far lower than the metals around it. Silver, copper, and gold combine high electrical and thermal conductivities in a way that reflects the Wiedemann-Franz law, showing a clear link between the movement of electrons and the transfer of heat. These examples are not isolated curiosities but part of a connected picture that emerges from the data as a whole.

1 Data source

The charts and tables use data from the Mendeleev Python package, see Section 15. All the data used is shown in Section 16

There is also an old version using the Vertex spreadsheet template data.

2 Atomic weight

Atomic weight (more precisely, relative atomic mass) is the weighted average mass of an element’s naturally occurring isotopes, measured relative to one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. It is dimensionless (a ratio), but in practice often written in unified atomic mass units (u), where 1 u ≈ 1.660 539 × 10⁻²⁷ kg. The value reflects both the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and the proportions of each isotope found in nature, which means it can vary slightly depending on the source of the element—chlorine, for example, has an atomic weight of about 35.45 because it is roughly 75 % chlorine-35 and 25 % chlorine-37. Some elements, especially those with only one stable isotope (e.g., fluorine-19, beryllium-9), have atomic weights that are essentially fixed, while others with large isotope variations (e.g., lithium, boron) may be given as ranges by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). For radioactive elements with no stable isotopes, an atomic weight is not fixed and is often based on the most stable isotope or the isotope most commonly used in research.

In all bar charts color each element by its block (s, p, d, f). Paler colors are used for higher periods. Vertical lines separate the blocks.

Code 
plotter = Plotter(df)
plotter.plot('Atomic Weight')
Figure 1: Atomic weight.

3 Density

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, typically expressed for elements in kilograms per cubic metre (kg·m⁻³) or grams per cubic centimetre (g·cm⁻³) which are used here. For solids and liquids, density depends on both the mass of individual atoms and how closely they are packed in the crystal or molecular structure. In the periodic table, metals tend to have higher densities than nonmetals because their atoms are both heavier and packed tightly in metallic lattices. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements under standard conditions (both around 22.6 g·cm⁻³), while lithium, the least dense metal, has a density of just 0.534 g·cm⁻³, making it light enough to float on water. Nonmetals vary widely: solid carbon (graphite) is about 2.27 g·cm⁻³, while gaseous elements like helium have densities in the thousandths of a g·cm⁻³ at room temperature. Density can also change significantly with temperature and pressure; for example, metals expand slightly when heated, lowering their density, while gases follow the ideal gas law and decrease in density more sharply with rising temperature at constant pressure.

See Section 13 for estimates of density based on atomic weight, crystal structure and atomic radius.

Code 
plotter.plot('Density')
Figure 2: Density in g/cm3.

4 Melting and boiling points

When plotted across the periodic table, melting and boiling points reveal distinct trends and striking anomalies. Metals in the middle of the transition series, such as tungsten, have exceptionally high melting points (tungsten’s is the highest of all, 3422 °C), while noble gases like helium remain liquefied only near absolute zero (helium’s boiling point is the lowest known, −268.93 °C). Carbon is unusual in that at atmospheric pressure it does not melt but sublimates directly to gas at about 3900 K, giving it one of the highest sublimation points of any element. Gallium is another oddity—its melting point is just 29.76 °C, meaning it can melt in the palm of your hand, yet its boiling point is a much higher 2400 °C, an unusually wide liquid range for a metal. The alkali metals show a steady increase in both melting and boiling points up a group, while the halogens progress from gases to solids with rising boiling points as atomic mass increases. Mercury is a notable liquid metal at room temperature, with a melting point of −38.83 °C and a relatively low boiling point of 356.73 °C. These extremes—whether in refractory metals, cryogenic gases, or unusual phase behavior—mark the boundaries of elemental physical properties.

Code 
plotter.plot('Melting Point')
Figure 3: Melting point in °K.
Code 
plotter.plot('Boiling Point')
Figure 4: Boiling point in °K.

5 Ionization energy and electron affinity

These are complementary measures, but not strict opposites.

  • Ionization energy, Figure 5, measures how much energy you must put in to remove an electron from a neutral atom.
  • Electron affinity Figure 6, measures how much energy is released (or absorbed) when you add an electron to a neutral atom.

High ionization energy usually goes with a strongly negative electron affinity (atoms both hold on to electrons tightly and want more—e.g., fluorine, chlorine). Low ionization energy often accompanies small or even positive electron affinity (atoms lose electrons easily and don’t strongly attract extras—e.g., alkali metals, noble gases). The relationship isn’t perfectly mirrored because the processes involve different initial and final states, and subshell structure can skew the trends.

5.1 Ionization energy

Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a neutral atom in its gaseous state, producing a singly charged positive ion. It is usually expressed in electronvolts (eV, shown here) or kilojoules per mole (kJ·mol⁻¹). When plotted by element, first ionization energy shows a strong periodic trend: it generally increases across a period from left to right, reflecting the growing nuclear charge that holds electrons more tightly, and decreases down a group as outer electrons are farther from the nucleus and more shielded by inner shells. The noble gases sit at the top of each period, with helium having the highest value of all (24.59 eV, 2372 kJ·mol⁻¹), while alkali metals like cesium and francium have the lowest, reflecting how easily they lose their single valence electron. Notable irregularities occur in elements like boron and oxygen, where subshell structure slightly lowers the expected value. These variations reflect the interplay of nuclear charge, electron shielding, and subshell stability.

Code 
plotter.plot('Ionization Energy')
Figure 5: Ionization energy in eV.

5.2 Electron affinity

Electron affinity is the change in energy when a neutral atom in the gaseous state gains an electron to form a negative ion. It is usually expressed in electronvolts (eV, shown here) or kilojoules per mole (kJ·mol⁻¹); by convention, a negative value means energy is released (exothermic), while a positive value means energy is required (endothermic). Across a period from left to right, electron affinity generally becomes more negative as atoms have a stronger tendency to complete their valence shell—halogens are the most extreme, with chlorine releasing about −3.6 eV (−349 kJ·mol⁻¹) when gaining an electron. Noble gases have positive electron affinities because adding an electron would start a new shell, which is energetically unfavorable. Down a group, the trend is less regular than for ionization energy: while increasing atomic size generally makes electron gain less favorable, subshell configurations cause exceptions, such as oxygen’s slightly less negative value than sulfur’s, due to electron–electron repulsion in its compact 2p shell. These variations highlight the balance between nuclear attraction, electron shielding, and subshell stability in determining how readily an atom will accept an extra electron.

Code 
plotter.plot("Electron Affinity")
Figure 6: Electron Affinity in kJ/mol.

6 Radii

Radius is measured in pm, picometers or \(10^{-12}\)m. An element’s radius can be defined in several different ways, depending on how the atom is bonded or measured, and each definition captures a different aspect of its size.

  • Metallic radius (Figure 7) is half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms in a pure metallic crystal; it is most relevant for metals and is typically larger than other definitions because metallic bonding allows atoms to be packed but still delocalized.
  • Covalent radius (Figure 8) is half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms joined by a single covalent bond; it applies mainly to nonmetals and covalently bonded solids and tends to be smaller than the metallic radius for the same element.
  • Atomic radius (Figure 9) is often a more general term—sometimes used for the covalent value, sometimes defined from theoretical models like the Bohr radius for hydrogen. Figure 9 shows the metallic radius for metals and the covalent radius otherwise.
  • Van der Waals radius (Figure 10) measures half the distance between two non-bonded atoms when they are in closest contact (e.g., in neighboring molecules in a crystal or liquid); it is the largest of these radii, since it represents the “personal space” an atom keeps when no bond is present.

When plotted across the periodic table, all radii decrease from left to right within a period due to increasing nuclear charge, and increase down a group as additional electron shells are added. Differences between these four radii reflect the type of interaction being measured—tightly bound in covalent bonds, more spread out in metallic lattices, and most expansive when only weak van der Waals forces act.

Code 
plotter.plot('Metallic Radius')
Figure 7: Metallic Radius (pm).
Code 
plotter.plot('Covalent radius')
Figure 8: Covalent radius (pm).
Code 
plotter.plot('Atomic Radius')
Figure 9: Atomic Radius (pm).
Code 
plotter.plot('Van der Waals Radius')
Figure 10: Van der Waals Radius (pm).

7 Electro-negativity

Electronegativity is a dimensionless measure of how strongly an atom attracts shared electrons in a chemical bond. It is not a directly measurable physical quantity but is derived from other data, most famously by Linus Pauling, whose Pauling scale remains the most widely used. Other scales, like Mulliken or Allred–Rochow, use ionization energy and electron affinity or electrostatic arguments to produce similar trends. On the Pauling scale, values range from about 0.7 (cesium and francium, very weak attraction) to 4.0 (fluorine, the strongest). Across a period from left to right, electronegativity increases due to rising nuclear charge and smaller atomic radii, making the nucleus’s pull on bonding electrons stronger. Down a group, it decreases as added electron shells increase shielding and distance from the nucleus. Noble gases are usually omitted because they rarely form covalent bonds, though some heavier ones can. Extremes include fluorine (highest), oxygen (second highest), and cesium/francium (lowest). Electronegativity is related to both ionization energy and electron affinity—atoms with high values for both tend to have high electronegativity—but because it deals with shared electrons in bonds rather than isolated atoms, the correlation is not exact.

Code 
plotter.plot("Electro-negativity (Pauling)")
Figure 11: Electro-negativity (Pauling).

8 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity is a measure of how efficiently a material transfers heat, usually expressed in watts per meter per kelvin (W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). For elements, it largely depends on how mobile the electrons or lattice vibrations (phonons) are in carrying thermal energy. Metals, with their “sea” of delocalized electrons, generally have the highest thermal conductivities—silver holds the record at about 429 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹, closely followed by copper and gold—while nonmetals vary widely depending on structure. Diamond (a form of carbon) is exceptional, with the highest known thermal conductivity of any bulk material (~2200 W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹) due to its rigid, perfectly ordered covalent lattice and strong covalent bonds. At the other extreme, elements like sulfur, phosphorus, and the noble gases have extremely low conductivities, as they rely solely on phonon transport through relatively weakly bound structures. Trends in the periodic table are less regular than for properties like ionization energy, since conductivity depends not only on bonding type but also on crystal structure, defects, and isotopic composition.

Code 
plotter.plot("Thermal Conductivity")
Figure 12: Thermal Conductivity, W/(m K)

9 Electrical resistivity

Electrical resistivity measures how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current, with units of ohm-meters (Ω·m). It is the inverse of electrical conductivity, so low resistivity means high conductivity. Among the elements, silver has the lowest resistivity (~1.59 × 10⁻⁸ Ω·m), followed closely by copper and gold, which is why these metals dominate in electrical wiring and contacts. Most metals have low resistivities because their delocalized conduction electrons can move freely through the metallic lattice. In contrast, nonmetals and metalloids such as sulfur, phosphorus, and silicon have much higher resistivities—ranging from semiconducting values in silicon (~10⁻³ to 10³ Ω·m, depending on doping) to extremely high, effectively insulating values in materials like sulfur or diamond (>10¹² Ω·m). Temperature strongly affects resistivity: in pure metals it increases with temperature due to greater scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations, while in semiconductors it decreases as more charge carriers become available. Extreme cases include superconductors, which have effectively zero resistivity below their critical temperature. The mendeleev package does not include electrical resistivity. Table 1 includes some values.

Table 1: Electrical resistivity data for selected elements.
Element and form Resistivity \(\rho\) (\(\Omega\cdot\text{m}\))
Ag \(1.59\times 10^{-8}\)
Cu \(1.68\times 10^{-8}\)
Au \(2.44\times 10^{-8}\)
Al \(2.65\text{–}2.82\times 10^{-8}\)
W \(5.6\times 10^{-8}\)
Fe \(\sim 1.0\times 10^{-7}\)
Pb \(\sim 2.2\times 10^{-7}\)
Graphite (basal plane) \(\sim 10^{-5}\) (anisotropic)
Si (intrinsic, 300 K) \(\sim 10^{3}\) (order of \(10^{2}\text{–}10^{3}\))
Ge (intrinsic, 300 K) \(\sim 0.4\text{–}0.5\)
Diamond \(10^{11} ext{–}10^{18}\) (insulator)

10 Phase, type, group, block, electron configuration and crystal structure

Code 
import numpy as np
fGT(df[Elements.base_cols_1].set_index('Name'), table_float_format=lambda x: '' if np.isnan(x) else f'{x:,.2f}')
Table 2: Phase, type, electron configuration, group, and crystal structure by element.
Name Symbol Atomic Number Phase Type Group Group Symbol Block Electron Configuration Crystal Structure
Hydrogen H 1 Gas Nonmetals 1 IA s 1s HEX
Helium He 2 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA s 1s2 HEX
Lithium Li 3 Solid Alkali metals 1 IA s [He] 2s BCC
Beryllium Be 4 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [He] 2s2 HEX
Boron B 5 Solid Metalloids 13 IIIA p [He] 2s2 2p TET
Carbon C 6 Gas Nonmetals 14 IVA p [He] 2s2 2p2 DIA
Nitrogen N 7 Gas Nonmetals 15 VA p [He] 2s2 2p3 HEX
Oxygen O 8 Gas Nonmetals 16 VIA p [He] 2s2 2p4 CUB
Fluorine F 9 Gas Halogens 17 VIIA p [He] 2s2 2p5 MCL
Neon Ne 10 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [He] 2s2 2p6 FCC
Sodium Na 11 Solid Alkali metals 1 IA s [Ne] 3s BCC
Magnesium Mg 12 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [Ne] 3s2 HEX
Aluminum Al 13 Solid Poor metals 13 IIIA p [Ne] 3s2 3p FCC
Silicon Si 14 Solid Metalloids 14 IVA p [Ne] 3s2 3p2 DIA
Phosphorus P 15 Solid Nonmetals 15 VA p [Ne] 3s2 3p3 CUB
Sulfur S 16 Solid Nonmetals 16 VIA p [Ne] 3s2 3p4 ORC
Chlorine Cl 17 Gas Halogens 17 VIIA p [Ne] 3s2 3p5 ORC
Argon Ar 18 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [Ne] 3s2 3p6 FCC
Potassium K 19 Solid Alkali metals 1 IA s [Ar] 4s BCC
Calcium Ca 20 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [Ar] 4s2 FCC
Scandium Sc 21 Solid Transition metals 3 IIIB d [Ar] 3d 4s2 HEX
Titanium Ti 22 Solid Transition metals 4 IVB d [Ar] 3d2 4s2 HEX
Vanadium V 23 Solid Transition metals 5 VB d [Ar] 3d3 4s2 BCC
Chromium Cr 24 Solid Transition metals 6 VIB d [Ar] 3d5 4s BCC
Manganese Mn 25 Solid Transition metals 7 VIIB d [Ar] 3d5 4s2 CUB
Iron Fe 26 Solid Transition metals 8 VIIIB d [Ar] 3d6 4s2 BCC
Cobalt Co 27 Solid Transition metals 9 VIIIB d [Ar] 3d7 4s2 HEX
Nickel Ni 28 Solid Transition metals 10 VIIIB d [Ar] 3d8 4s2 FCC
Copper Cu 29 Solid Transition metals 11 IB d [Ar] 3d10 4s FCC
Zinc Zn 30 Solid Transition metals 12 IIB d [Ar] 3d10 4s2 HEX
Gallium Ga 31 Solid Poor metals 13 IIIA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p ORC
Germanium Ge 32 Solid Metalloids 14 IVA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2 DIA
Arsenic As 33 Solid Metalloids 15 VA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3 RHL
Selenium Se 34 Solid Nonmetals 16 VIA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4 HEX
Bromine Br 35 Liquid Halogens 17 VIIA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5 ORC
Krypton Kr 36 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6 FCC
Rubidium Rb 37 Solid Alkali metals 1 IA s [Kr] 5s BCC
Strontium Sr 38 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [Kr] 5s2 FCC
Yttrium Y 39 Solid Transition metals 3 IIIB d [Kr] 4d 5s2 HEX
Zirconium Zr 40 Solid Transition metals 4 IVB d [Kr] 4d2 5s2 HEX
Niobium Nb 41 Solid Transition metals 5 VB d [Kr] 4d4 5s BCC
Molybdenum Mo 42 Solid Transition metals 6 VIB d [Kr] 4d5 5s BCC
Technetium Tc 43 Solid Transition metals 7 VIIB d [Kr] 4d5 5s2 HEX
Ruthenium Ru 44 Solid Transition metals 8 VIIIB d [Kr] 4d7 5s HEX
Rhodium Rh 45 Solid Transition metals 9 VIIIB d [Kr] 4d8 5s FCC
Palladium Pd 46 Solid Transition metals 10 VIIIB d [Kr] 4d10 FCC
Silver Ag 47 Solid Transition metals 11 IB d [Kr] 4d10 5s FCC
Cadmium Cd 48 Solid Transition metals 12 IIB d [Kr] 4d10 5s2 HEX
Indium In 49 Solid Poor metals 13 IIIA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p TET
Tin Sn 50 Solid Poor metals 14 IVA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2 TET
Antimony Sb 51 Solid Metalloids 15 VA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3 RHL
Tellurium Te 52 Solid Metalloids 16 VIA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4 HEX
Iodine I 53 Solid Halogens 17 VIIA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5 ORC
Xenon Xe 54 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6 FCC
Cesium Cs 55 Solid Alkali metals 1 IA s [Xe] 6s BCC
Barium Ba 56 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [Xe] 6s2 BCC
Lanthanum La 57 Solid Lanthanides 3 IIIB d [Xe] 5d 6s2 HEX
Cerium Ce 58 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f 5d 6s2 FCC
Praseodymium Pr 59 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f3 6s2 HEX
Neodymium Nd 60 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f4 6s2 HEX
Promethium Pm 61 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f5 6s2 None
Samarium Sm 62 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f6 6s2 RHL
Europium Eu 63 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f7 6s2 BCC
Gadolinium Gd 64 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f7 5d 6s2 HEX
Terbium Tb 65 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f9 6s2 HEX
Dysprosium Dy 66 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f10 6s2 HEX
Holmium Ho 67 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f11 6s2 HEX
Erbium Er 68 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f12 6s2 HEX
Thulium Tm 69 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f13 6s2 HEX
Ytterbium Yb 70 Solid Lanthanides nan None f [Xe] 4f14 6s2 FCC
Lutetium Lu 71 Solid Transition metals nan None f [Xe] 4f14 5d 6s2 HEX
Hafnium Hf 72 Solid Transition metals 4 IVB d [Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2 HEX
Tantalum Ta 73 Solid Transition metals 5 VB d [Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2 BCC
Tungsten W 74 Solid Transition metals 6 VIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2 BCC
Rhenium Re 75 Solid Transition metals 7 VIIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2 HEX
Osmium Os 76 Solid Transition metals 8 VIIIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2 HEX
Iridium Ir 77 Solid Transition metals 9 VIIIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2 FCC
Platinum Pt 78 Solid Transition metals 10 VIIIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s FCC
Gold Au 79 Solid Transition metals 11 IB d [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s FCC
Mercury Hg 80 Liquid Transition metals 12 IIB d [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 RHL
Thallium Tl 81 Solid Poor metals 13 IIIA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p HEX
Lead Pb 82 Solid Poor metals 14 IVA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 FCC
Bismuth Bi 83 Solid Poor metals 15 VA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 RHL
Polonium Po 84 Solid Metalloids 16 VIA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4 SC
Astatine At 85 Solid Halogens 17 VIIA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5 None
Radon Rn 86 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 FCC
Francium Fr 87 Gas Alkali metals 1 IA s [Rn] 7s BCC
Radium Ra 88 Solid Alkaline earth metals 2 IIA s [Rn] 7s2 None
Actinium Ac 89 Solid Actinides 3 IIIB d [Rn] 6d 7s2 FCC
Thorium Th 90 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 6d2 7s2 FCC
Protactinium Pa 91 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f2 6d 7s2 TET
Uranium U 92 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f3 6d 7s2 ORC
Neptunium Np 93 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f4 6d 7s2 ORC
Plutonium Pu 94 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f6 7s2 MCL
Americium Am 95 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f7 7s2 None
Curium Cm 96 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f7 6d 7s2 None
Berkelium Bk 97 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f9 7s2 None
Californium Cf 98 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f10 7s2 None
Einsteinium Es 99 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f11 7s2 None
Fermium Fm 100 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f12 7s2 None
Mendelevium Md 101 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f13 7s2 None
Nobelium No 102 Solid Actinides nan None f [Rn] 5f14 7s2 None
Lawrencium Lr 103 Solid Transition metals nan None f [Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1 None
Rutherfordium Rf 104 Gas Transition metals 4 IVB d [Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2 None
Dubnium Db 105 Gas Transition metals 5 VB d [Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2 None
Seaborgium Sg 106 Gas Transition metals 6 VIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2 None
Bohrium Bh 107 Gas Transition metals 7 VIIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2 None
Hassium Hs 108 Gas Transition metals 8 VIIIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2 None
Meitnerium Mt 109 Gas Transition metals 9 VIIIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2 None
Darmstadtium Ds 110 Gas Transition metals 10 VIIIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d9 7s1 None
Roentgenium Rg 111 Gas Transition metals 11 IB d [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s1 None
Copernicium Cn 112 Gas Transition metals 12 IIB d [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 None
Nihonium Nh 113 Gas Poor metals 13 IIIA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1 None
Flerovium Fl 114 Gas Poor metals 14 IVA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2 None
Moscovium Mc 115 Gas Poor metals 15 VA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p3 None
Livermorium Lv 116 Gas Poor metals 16 VIA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4 None
Tennessine Ts 117 Gas Halogens 17 VIIA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p5 None
Oganesson Og 118 Gas Noble gases 18 VIIIA p [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 None

10.1 Details about Type

Type is a broad chemical classification of elements, grouping them by their general physical and chemical properties. It is a way of labeling an element according to where it sits in the periodic table and the kind of bonding and reactivity it usually shows.

Metals

A metal is an element that tends to lose electrons to form positive ions and whose atoms in the solid state are bound by metallic bonding—a lattice of positive atomic cores surrounded by a “sea” of delocalised electrons. This electron cloud gives metals their characteristic properties: high electrical and thermal conductivity, malleability, ductility, and metallic lustre. Most metals have only one to three electrons in their outermost shell, which are relatively weakly bound and easily delocalised; these configurations are common in the s-block (alkali and alkaline earth metals), d-block (transition metals), and lower p-block (post-transition metals). The periodic table position is a strong guide, with metals dominating the left and centre, nonmetals at the upper right, and metalloids along the boundary between them. While outer-shell electron count is a good predictor of metallic behaviour, the decisive factor is the electronic band structure—specifically, whether the valence and conduction bands overlap to allow electrons to move freely. Edge cases exist, such as metalloids that can act metallic under some conditions, or nonmetals like hydrogen that become metallic only at high pressures.

Metals vs. nonmetals vs. metalloids

  • Metals (e.g., iron, copper, aluminum) are generally good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and form positive ions (cations) in compounds.

  • Nonmetals (e.g., oxygen, sulfur, chlorine) are poor conductors, often brittle in solid form, and tend to form negative ions (anions) or covalent bonds.

  • Metalloids (e.g., boron, silicon, arsenic) have properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals, often depending on the chemical environment.

Specific subcategories

These are based mostly on position in the periodic table.

  • Alkali metals — Group 1 (except hydrogen): Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr. Very reactive metals with one valence electron, low melting points, form strong bases with water.

  • Alkaline earth metals — Group 2: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra. Reactive metals with two valence electrons, form basic oxides.

  • Transition metals — Groups 3–12 in the “d-block” of the periodic table. Variable oxidation states, form coloured compounds, often good catalysts. The “Transition Metal ?” label in your list likely means uncertain classification, perhaps due to inconsistent data source mapping.

  • Rare earth metals — The lanthanides (La to Lu) and sometimes Sc and Y. Similar reactivity and electron configurations (4f-block), often used in magnets, alloys, and phosphors.

  • Poor metals / Post-transition metals — Metals in the p-block that are softer, lower melting, and poorer conductors than transition metals (e.g., Al, Ga, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi). “Post-transition” is essentially the same concept; the difference in your list may come from merging multiple data sources.

  • Noble gases — Group 18: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn, Og. Chemically inert under most conditions, full valence shell. “Noble Gas ?” means an uncertain flag in the source data.

  • Halogens — Group 17: F, Cl, Br, I, At, Ts. Reactive nonmetals with seven valence electrons, form salts with metals.

10.2 Details about Crystal Structure

Most elements crystallize at ambient conditions into a small set of common crystal structures, each defined by how atoms are arranged in three-dimensional space. These arrangements determine packing density, nearest-neighbour distances, and many physical properties such as density, strength, and conductivity. The most relevant for elemental solids are:

  • Face-centred cubic (FCC) — Atoms are located at each corner of a cube and at the centres of all cube faces. This structure is close-packed (packing fraction 0.74) and each atom has 12 nearest neighbours. Many ductile metals adopt FCC at room temperature, including aluminium, copper, silver, and gold.

  • Body-centred cubic (BCC) — Atoms are located at each cube corner and one atom at the cube’s body centre. This is not close-packed (packing fraction 0.68) and has 8 nearest neighbours. BCC metals such as iron (at room temperature), chromium, and tungsten are typically stronger and harder but less ductile than FCC metals.

  • Hexagonal (HEX) — A family of hexagonal lattices, including hexagonal close-packed (HCP) and related variants. Layers of atoms form a hexagonal lattice, often with 12 nearest neighbours. Close-packed forms have a packing fraction of 0.74, but some variants differ in stacking sequence or bonding. Magnesium, titanium, zinc, and cobalt adopt hexagonal forms at ambient conditions.

  • Diamond cubic (DIA) — A variation of the FCC lattice where each atom is covalently bonded to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement. This open structure has a low packing fraction (~0.34) and is characteristic of covalently bonded elements such as carbon (diamond form), silicon, and germanium.

  • Orthorhombic (ORC) — A rectangular lattice with three unequal axes at right angles. Found in elements such as sulfur and the halogens (Cl, Br, I), often reflecting molecular or complex bonding arrangements rather than close-packed spheres.

  • Rhombohedral (RHL) — A lattice with equal-length axes inclined at the same angle (not 90°). Examples include bismuth, antimony, and α-mercury.

  • Tetragonal (TET) — A cube stretched or compressed along one axis. Indium and tin adopt tetragonal forms.

  • Cubic (unspecified, CUB) — Cubic symmetry without a specific close-packed or diamond arrangement, often for molecular solids or high-temperature phases.

  • Monoclinic (MCL) — A skewed lattice with three unequal axes, two at right angles and the third inclined. Examples include plutonium at ambient temperature.

  • Simple cubic (SC) — Atoms occupy only the cube corners, each with 6 nearest neighbours. This has a low packing fraction (0.52) and is rare among elements; polonium is the only one that adopts it at ambient conditions.

These are the principal model structures used in elemental crystallography. Some elements adopt more complex or low-symmetry forms, which generally require experimental lattice constants for accurate property calculations.

Table 3: Abbreviations for crystal structure, frequency, and typical elements.
Abbrev. Meaning Number Examples
HEX Hexagonal (includes HCP, dhcp, other variants) 30 Be, Mg, Ti, Zn
FCC Face-centred cubic 21 Al, Cu, Ag, Au
BCC Body-centred cubic 15 Li, Fe, W
ORC Orthorhombic 7 S, Cl, Br
RHL Rhombohedral 5 Sb, Bi, Hg
TET Tetragonal 4 In, Sn
DIA Diamond cubic 3 C (diamond), Si, Ge
CUB Cubic (unspecified type) 3 O, F, Po
MCL Monoclinic 2 Se, Pu
SC Simple cubic 1 Po

11 Melting and boiling points, density, electron affinity, and thermal conductivity

Code 
fGT(df[Elements.base_cols_2].set_index('Name'), table_float_format=lambda x: '' if np.isnan(x) else f'{x:,.2f}')
Table 4: Basic numerical characteristics by element.
Name Symbol Atomic Number Atomic Weight Melting Point Boiling Point Density Electron Affinity Thermal Conductivity
Hydrogen H 1 1.01 13.99 20.27 0.00 0.75 0.18
Helium He 2 4.00 4.22 0.00 -19.70 0.15
Lithium Li 3 6.94 453.65 1,615.15 0.53 0.62 84.80
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 1,560.15 2,741.15 1.85 -2.40 201.00
Boron B 5 10.81 2,350.15 4,273.15 2.34 0.28 27.40
Carbon C 6 12.01 4,098.15 2.20 1.26 1.59
Nitrogen N 7 14.01 63.15 77.35 0.00 -1.40 0.03
Oxygen O 8 16.00 54.36 90.19 0.00 1.46 0.03
Fluorine F 9 19.00 53.48 85.04 0.00 3.40 0.03
Neon Ne 10 20.18 24.56 27.10 0.00
Sodium Na 11 22.99 370.94 1,156.09 0.97 0.55 142.00
Magnesium Mg 12 24.30 923.15 1,363.15 1.74 156.00
Aluminum Al 13 26.98 933.47 2,792.15 2.70 0.43 237.00
Silicon Si 14 28.09 1,687.15 3,538.15 2.33 1.39 149.00
Phosphorus P 15 30.97 852.35 704.15 1.82 0.75
Sulfur S 16 32.06 388.36 717.76 2.07 2.08 0.27
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 171.65 239.11 0.00 3.61 0.01
Argon Ar 18 39.95 83.81 87.30 0.00 -11.50 0.02
Potassium K 19 39.10 336.65 1,032.15 0.89 0.50 79.00
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1,115.15 1,757.15 1.54 0.02
Scandium Sc 21 44.96 1,814.15 3,109.15 2.99 0.19 15.80
Titanium Ti 22 47.87 1,943.15 3,560.15 4.51 0.08 21.90
Vanadium V 23 50.94 2,183.15 3,680.15 6.00 0.53 30.70
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 2,180.15 2,944.15 7.15 0.67 93.90
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 1,519.15 2,334.15 7.30
Iron Fe 26 55.84 1,811.15 3,134.15 7.87 0.15 80.40
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 1,768.15 3,200.15 8.86 0.66 100.00
Nickel Ni 28 58.69 1,728.15 3,186.15 8.90 1.16 90.90
Copper Cu 29 63.55 1,357.77 2,833.15 8.96 1.24 401.00
Zinc Zn 30 65.38 692.68 1,180.15 7.13 116.00
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 302.91 2,502.15 5.91 0.43 28.10
Germanium Ge 32 72.63 1,211.40 3,106.15 5.32 1.23 60.20
Arsenic As 33 74.92 1,090.15 889.15 5.75 0.80
Selenium Se 34 78.97 493.95 958.15 4.81 2.02 0.52
Bromine Br 35 79.90 265.95 331.95 3.10 3.36 0.01
Krypton Kr 36 83.80 115.78 119.73 0.00 0.01
Rubidium Rb 37 85.47 312.45 961.15 1.53 0.49 58.20
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 1,050.15 1,650.15 2.64 0.05
Yttrium Y 39 88.91 1,795.15 3,618.15 4.47 0.31
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 2,127.15 4,679.15 6.52 0.43 22.70
Niobium Nb 41 92.91 2,750.15 5,014.15 8.57 0.92 53.70
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.95 2,895.15 4,912.15 10.20 0.75
Technetium Tc 43 97.91 2,430.15 4,535.15 11.00 0.55 50.60
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 2,606.15 4,420.15 12.10 1.05 117.00
Rhodium Rh 45 102.91 2,236.15 3,968.15 12.40 1.14 150.00
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 1,827.95 3,236.15 12.00 0.56 71.80
Silver Ag 47 107.87 1,234.93 2,435.15 10.50 1.30 429.00
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 594.22 1,040.15 8.69 96.90
Indium In 49 114.82 429.75 2,300.15 7.31 0.30 81.80
Tin Sn 50 118.71 505.08 2,859.15 7.29 1.11 66.80
Antimony Sb 51 121.76 903.78 1,860.15 6.68 1.05 24.43
Tellurium Te 52 127.60 722.66 1,261.15 6.23 1.97 14.30
Iodine I 53 126.90 386.85 457.55 4.93 3.06
Xenon Xe 54 131.29 161.40 165.05 0.01 -0.06 0.01
Cesium Cs 55 132.91 301.65 944.15 1.87 0.47 35.90
Barium Ba 56 137.33 1,000.15 2,118.15 3.62 0.14
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 1,193.15 3,737.15 6.15 0.47 13.40
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 1,072.15 3,716.15 6.77 0.65 11.30
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.91 1,204.15 3,793.15 6.77 0.96 12.50
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 1,289.15 3,347.15 7.01 1.92
Promethium Pm 61 144.91 1,315.15 7.26 17.90
Samarium Sm 62 150.36 1,345.15 2,067.15 7.52
Europium Eu 63 151.96 1,095.15 1,802.15 5.24 0.86 13.90
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 1,586.15 3,546.15 7.90
Terbium Tb 65 158.93 1,632.15 3,503.15 8.23 1.17 11.10
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 1,685.15 2,840.15 8.55 0.35 10.70
Holmium Ho 67 164.93 1,745.15 2,973.15 8.80
Erbium Er 68 167.26 1,802.15 3,141.15 9.07
Thulium Tm 69 168.93 1,818.15 2,223.15 9.32 1.03
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 1,097.15 1,469.15 6.90 -0.02
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97 1,936.15 3,675.15 9.84 0.34
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 2,506.15 4,873.15 13.30 0.01 23.00
Tantalum Ta 73 180.95 3,290.15 5,728.15 16.40 0.32 57.50
Tungsten W 74 183.84 3,687.15 5,828.15 19.30 0.82 173.00
Rhenium Re 75 186.21 3,458.15 5,863.15 20.80 0.15 48.00
Osmium Os 76 190.23 3,306.15 5,281.15 22.59 1.10
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 2,719.15 4,701.15 22.56 1.56 147.00
Platinum Pt 78 195.08 2,041.35 4,098.15 21.50 2.13 71.60
Gold Au 79 196.97 1,337.33 3,109.15 19.30 2.31 318.00
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 234.32 629.77 13.53 8.30
Thallium Tl 81 204.38 577.15 1,746.15 11.80 0.38 46.10
Lead Pb 82 207.20 600.61 2,022.15 11.30 0.36 35.30
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98 544.55 1,837.15 9.79 0.94 7.90
Polonium Po 84 209.00 527.15 1,235.15 9.20 1.90
Astatine At 85 210.00 575.15 7.00 2.80
Radon Rn 86 222.00 202.15 211.45 0.01 0.00
Francium Fr 87 223.00 294.15 1.87 0.49
Radium Ra 88 226.00 969.15 5.00 0.10
Actinium Ac 89 227.00 1,323.15 3,473.15 10.00 0.35
Thorium Th 90 232.04 2,023.15 5,058.15 11.70
Protactinium Pa 91 231.04 1,845.15 15.40
Uranium U 92 238.03 1,408.15 4,404.15 19.10 27.50
Neptunium Np 93 237.00 917.15 20.20
Plutonium Pu 94 244.00 913.15 3,501.15 19.70
Americium Am 95 243.00 1,449.15 12.00
Curium Cm 96 247.00 1,618.15 13.51
Berkelium Bk 97 247.00 1,259.15 14.78
Californium Cf 98 251.00 1,173.15 15.10
Einsteinium Es 99 252.00 1,133.15 8.84
Fermium Fm 100 257.00 1,800.15 9.70
Mendelevium Md 101 258.00 1,100.15 10.30
Nobelium No 102 259.00 1,100.15 9.90
Lawrencium Lr 103 262.00 1,900.15 15.60
Rutherfordium Rf 104 267.00 23.30
Dubnium Db 105 268.00 29.30
Seaborgium Sg 106 271.00 35.00
Bohrium Bh 107 274.00 37.10
Hassium Hs 108 269.00 40.70
Meitnerium Mt 109 276.00 37.40
Darmstadtium Ds 110 281.00 34.80
Roentgenium Rg 111 281.00 28.70
Copernicium Cn 112 285.00 14.00
Nihonium Nh 113 286.00 16.00
Flerovium Fl 114 289.00 9.93
Moscovium Mc 115 288.00 13.50
Livermorium Lv 116 293.00 12.90
Tennessine Ts 117 294.00 7.20
Oganesson Og 118 294.00 7.00 0.06

11.1 Details about Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity measures how effectively a material conducts heat, with units of watts per metre–kelvin (W·m⁻¹·K⁻¹). In metals, heat is carried primarily by conduction electrons, so good electrical conductors like copper, silver, and aluminum are also excellent thermal conductors. In nonmetals, heat is carried mainly by lattice vibrations (phonons), and conductivity depends on atomic bonding and crystal structure—diamond, for example, has extremely high thermal conductivity due to its strong covalent bonds and stiff lattice. Temperature, impurities, and structural defects can significantly affect a material’s thermal conductivity.

12 Discoverers and year discovered

Code 
fGT(df[Elements.prov_cols].set_index('Name').drop(index='Tennessine').fillna(0),
  formatters={'Year': lambda x: 'ancient' if x==0 else f'{int(x):d}' })
Table 5: Year discovered by element.
Name Symbol Atomic Number Discoverers Year
Hydrogen H 1 Henry Cavendish 1766
Helium He 2 Sir William Ramsey, Nils Langet, P.T.Cleve 1895
Lithium Li 3 Johann Arfwedson 1817
Beryllium Be 4 Fredrich Wöhler, A.A.Bussy 1798
Boron B 5 Sir H. Davy, J.L. Gay-Lussac, L.J. Thénard 1808
Carbon C 6 Known to the ancients ancient
Nitrogen N 7 Daniel Rutherford 1772
Oxygen O 8 Joseph Priestly, Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774
Fluorine F 9 Henri Moissan 1886
Neon Ne 10 Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers 1898
Sodium Na 11 Sir Humphrey Davy 1807
Magnesium Mg 12 Sir Humphrey Davy 1808
Aluminum Al 13 Hans Christian Oersted 1825
Silicon Si 14 Jöns Berzelius 1824
Phosphorus P 15 Hennig Brand 1669
Sulfur S 16 Known to the ancients. ancient
Chlorine Cl 17 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774
Argon Ar 18 Sir William Ramsey, Baron Rayleigh 1894
Potassium K 19 Sir Humphrey Davy 1807
Calcium Ca 20 Sir Humphrey Davy 1808
Scandium Sc 21 Lars Nilson 1879
Titanium Ti 22 William Gregor 1791
Vanadium V 23 Nils Sefström 1830
Chromium Cr 24 Louis Vauquelin 1797
Manganese Mn 25 Johann Gahn 1774
Iron Fe 26 Known to the ancients. ancient
Cobalt Co 27 George Brandt 1739
Nickel Ni 28 Axel Cronstedt 1751
Copper Cu 29 Known to the ancients. ancient
Zinc Zn 30 Known to the ancients. ancient
Gallium Ga 31 Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1875
Germanium Ge 32 Clemens Winkler 1886
Arsenic As 33 Known to the ancients. ancient
Selenium Se 34 Jöns Berzelius 1818
Bromine Br 35 Antoine J. Balard 1826
Krypton Kr 36 Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers 1898
Rubidium Rb 37 R. Bunsen, G. Kirchoff 1861
Strontium Sr 38 A. Crawford 1790
Yttrium Y 39 Johann Gadolin 1789
Zirconium Zr 40 Martin Klaproth 1789
Niobium Nb 41 Charles Hatchet 1801
Molybdenum Mo 42 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1778
Technetium Tc 43 Carlo Perrier, Émillo Segrè 1937
Ruthenium Ru 44 Karl Klaus 1844
Rhodium Rh 45 William Wollaston 1803
Palladium Pd 46 William Wollaston 1803
Silver Ag 47 Known to the ancients. ancient
Cadmium Cd 48 Fredrich Stromeyer 1817
Indium In 49 Ferdinand Reich, T. Richter 1863
Tin Sn 50 Known to the ancients. ancient
Antimony Sb 51 Known to the ancients. ancient
Tellurium Te 52 Franz Müller von Reichenstein 1782
Iodine I 53 Bernard Courtois 1811
Xenon Xe 54 Sir William Ramsay; M. W. Travers 1898
Cesium Cs 55 Gustov Kirchoff, Robert Bunsen 1860
Barium Ba 56 Sir Humphrey Davy 1808
Lanthanum La 57 Carl Mosander 1839
Cerium Ce 58 W. von Hisinger, J. Berzelius, M. Klaproth 1803
Praseodymium Pr 59 C.F. Aver von Welsbach 1885
Neodymium Nd 60 C.F. Aver von Welsbach 1925
Promethium Pm 61 J.A. Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin, C.D. Coryell 1945
Samarium Sm 62 Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1879
Europium Eu 63 Eugène Demarçay 1901
Gadolinium Gd 64 Jean de Marignac 1880
Terbium Tb 65 Carl Mosander 1843
Dysprosium Dy 66 Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1886
Holmium Ho 67 J.L. Soret 1878
Erbium Er 68 Carl Mosander 1843
Thulium Tm 69 Per Theodor Cleve 1879
Ytterbium Yb 70 Jean de Marignac 1878
Lutetium Lu 71 Georges Urbain 1907
Hafnium Hf 72 Dirk Coster, Georg von Hevesy 1923
Tantalum Ta 73 Anders Ekeberg 1802
Tungsten W 74 Fausto and Juan José de Elhuyar 1783
Rhenium Re 75 Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, Otto Berg 1925
Osmium Os 76 Smithson Tenant 1804
Iridium Ir 77 S.Tenant, A.F.Fourcory, L.N.Vauquelin, H.V.Collet-Descoltils 1804
Platinum Pt 78 Julius Scaliger 1735
Gold Au 79 Known to the ancients. ancient
Mercury Hg 80 Known to the ancients. ancient
Thallium Tl 81 Sir William Crookes 1861
Lead Pb 82 Known to the ancients. ancient
Bismuth Bi 83 Known to the ancients. ancient
Polonium Po 84 Pierre and Marie Curie 1898
Astatine At 85 D.R.Corson, K.R.MacKenzie, E.Segré 1940
Radon Rn 86 Fredrich Ernst Dorn 1898
Francium Fr 87 Marguerite Derey 1939
Radium Ra 88 Pierre and Marie Curie 1898
Actinium Ac 89 André Debierne 1899
Thorium Th 90 Jöns Berzelius 1828
Protactinium Pa 91 Fredrich Soddy, John Cranston, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner 1917
Uranium U 92 Martin Klaproth 1789
Neptunium Np 93 E.M. McMillan, P.H. Abelson 1940
Plutonium Pu 94 G.T.Seaborg, J.W.Kennedy, E.M.McMillan, A.C.Wohl 1940
Americium Am 95 G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, L.O.Morgan, A.Ghiorso 1945
Curium Cm 96 G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, A.Ghiorso 1944
Berkelium Bk 97 G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso 1949
Californium Cf 98 G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. 1950
Einsteinium Es 99 Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif 1952
Fermium Fm 100 Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif 1953
Mendelevium Md 101 G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. 1955
Nobelium No 102 Nobel Institute for Physics 1957
Lawrencium Lr 103 A.Ghiorso, T.Sikkeland, A.E.Larsh, R.M.Latimer 1961
Rutherfordium Rf 104 A. Ghiorso, et al 1969
Dubnium Db 105 A. Ghiorso, et al 1970
Seaborgium Sg 106 Soviet Nuclear Research/ U. of Cal at Berkeley 1974
Bohrium Bh 107 Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1976
Hassium Hs 108 Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1984
Meitnerium Mt 109 Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1982
Darmstadtium Ds 110 Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1994
Roentgenium Rg 111 Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1994
Copernicium Cn 112 GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research 1996
Nihonium Nh 113 RIKEN 2015
Flerovium Fl 114 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 1998
Moscovium Mc 115 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 2003
Livermorium Lv 116 Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2000
Oganesson Og 118 Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 2002

13 Estimating density from radius, crystal structure, and atomic weight

This estimation method uses basic crystallographic geometry to approximate an element’s bulk density from its atomic weight, metallic radius, and crystal structure (Section 10.2). The key idea is that, if you know how atoms are arranged in a solid and how big they are, you can calculate the size of the repeating unit cell in the crystal lattice. By combining the unit cell’s volume with the number of atoms it contains and the mass per atom (derived from the atomic weight), you get an estimate of the density. Different crystal structures—face-centred cubic (FCC), body-centred cubic (BCC), hexagonal close-packed (HCP), simple cubic (SC), or diamond cubic—have characteristic relationships between the lattice parameter and the atomic radius, as well as fixed numbers of atoms per unit cell. For close-packed metals, a metallic radius and an idealised \(c/a\) ratio are used; for more accurate work, element-specific \(c/a\) values can be substituted for non-ideal structures such as zinc and cadmium.

This is a first-order physical model and, while it works reasonably well for close-packed metals, it is less reliable for elements with non-metallic bonding, low-symmetry structures, or significant open space in the crystal lattice. In such cases—noble gases, molecular solids, graphite, or unusual hcp variants—the actual packing fraction can deviate substantially from the ideal, leading to large errors. The method also depends on using the correct type of radius (metallic, covalent, or van der Waals) for the structure in question. When applied carefully with appropriate inputs, it can match tabulated densities within about 5–10 % for many metals, while providing a clear, geometry-based link between microscopic atomic parameters and macroscopic material properties.

Code 
bit = df[['Symbol', 'Atomic Number', 'Atomic Weight', 'Density', 'Crystal Structure', 'Metallic Radius']].copy()
bit.columns = ['Symbol', 'Z', 'Atomic Weight', 'Density', 'Crystal Structure', 'Radius']
bit["Crystal"] = bit["Symbol"].map(DensityEstimator.CRYSTAL).fillna("")
bit["Radius_pm"] = bit["Symbol"].map(
      DensityEstimator.RADIUS_PM).astype("Float64")

bit["Density_est"] = [
    DensityEstimator._estimate_density_one(sym, aw)
    for sym, aw in zip(bit["Symbol"], bit["Atomic Weight"])
]
bit['Error'] = bit.Density_est / bit.Density - 1
fGT(bit.query('Density_est > 0').set_index(['Symbol', 'Z']), year_cols='Z', ratio_cols='Error')
Table 6: Estimating density from atomic radius, crystal structure, and atomic weight.
Symbol Z Atomic Weight Density Crystal Structure Radius Crystal Radius_pm Density_est Error
Li 3 6.94 0.534 BCC 123.00 bcc 167.00 0.402 -24.8%
Be 4 9.01 1.850 HEX 89.00 hcp 112.00 1.883 1.8%
C 6 12.01 2.200 DIA nan diamond 77.00 3.547 61.2%
Na 11 22.99 0.970 BCC 157.00 bcc 190.00 0.904 -6.8%
Mg 12 24.30 1.740 HEX 136.00 hcp 160.00 1.742 0.1%
Al 13 26.98 2.700 FCC 125.00 fcc 143.00 2.709 0.3%
Si 14 28.09 2.330 DIA 117.00 diamond 111.00 2.769 18.8%
K 19 39.10 0.890 BCC 203.00 bcc 243.00 0.735 -17.4%
Ca 20 40.08 1.540 FCC 174.00 fcc 197.00 1.539 -0.1%
Ti 22 47.87 4.506 HEX 132.00 hcp 147.00 4.423 -1.8%
V 23 50.94 6.000 BCC 122.00 bcc 134.00 5.709 -4.9%
Cr 24 52.00 7.150 BCC 119.00 bcc 128.00 6.685 -6.5%
Mn 25 54.94 7.300 CUB 118.00 bcc 127.00 7.232 -0.9%
Fe 26 55.84 7.870 BCC 117.00 bcc 126.00 7.528 -4.4%
Co 27 58.93 8.860 HEX 116.00 hcp 125.00 8.857 -0.0%
Ni 28 58.69 8.900 FCC 115.00 fcc 124.00 9.036 1.5%
Cu 29 63.55 8.960 FCC 118.00 fcc 128.00 8.895 -0.7%
Zn 30 65.38 7.134 HEX 121.00 hcp 134.00 7.018 -1.6%
Ge 32 72.63 5.323 DIA 124.00 diamond 122.00 5.392 1.3%
Rb 37 85.47 1.530 BCC 216.00 bcc 265.00 1.238 -19.1%
Sr 38 87.62 2.640 FCC 191.00 fcc 215.00 2.588 -2.0%
Y 39 88.91 4.470 HEX 162.00 hcp 180.00 4.475 0.1%
Zr 40 91.22 6.520 HEX 145.00 hcp 160.00 6.538 0.3%
Nb 41 92.91 8.570 BCC 134.00 bcc 146.00 8.049 -6.1%
Mo 42 95.95 10.200 BCC 130.00 bcc 139.00 9.633 -5.6%
Tc 43 97.91 11.000 HEX 127.00 hcp 136.00 11.425 3.9%
Ru 44 101.07 12.100 HEX 125.00 hcp 134.00 12.331 1.9%
Ag 47 107.87 10.500 FCC 134.00 fcc 144.00 10.604 1.0%
Cd 48 112.41 8.690 HEX 138.00 hcp 151.00 8.299 -4.5%
Cs 55 132.91 1.873 BCC 235.00 bcc 298.00 1.354 -27.7%
Ba 56 137.33 3.620 BCC 198.00 bcc 217.00 3.624 0.1%
La 57 138.91 6.150 HEX 169.00 hcp 187.00 6.235 1.4%
Eu 63 151.96 5.240 BCC nan bcc 199.00 5.200 -0.8%
Gd 64 157.25 7.900 HEX nan hcp 180.00 7.915 0.2%
Tb 65 158.93 8.230 HEX nan hcp 177.00 8.413 2.2%
Dy 66 162.50 8.550 HEX nan hcp 178.00 8.458 -1.1%
Ho 67 164.93 8.800 HEX nan hcp 176.00 8.880 0.9%
Er 68 167.26 9.070 HEX nan hcp 176.00 9.006 -0.7%
Tm 69 168.93 9.321 HEX nan hcp 175.00 9.253 -0.7%
Yb 70 173.04 6.900 FCC nan fcc 194.00 6.957 0.8%
Lu 71 174.97 9.840 HEX nan hcp 174.00 9.749 -0.9%
Hf 72 178.49 13.300 HEX 144.00 hcp 159.00 13.035 -2.0%
Ta 73 180.95 16.400 BCC 134.00 bcc 146.00 15.677 -4.4%
W 74 183.84 19.300 BCC 130.00 bcc 139.00 18.458 -4.4%
Re 75 186.21 20.800 HEX 128.00 hcp 137.00 21.257 2.2%
Os 76 190.23 22.587 HEX 126.00 hcp 135.00 22.696 0.5%
Au 79 196.97 19.300 FCC 134.00 fcc 144.00 19.363 0.3%
Pb 82 207.20 11.300 FCC 150.00 fcc 175.00 11.349 0.4%
Po 84 209.00 9.200 SC nan sc 167.00 9.314 1.2%
Code 
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

bitm = bit.query("Density_est > 0").copy()

# color map per crystal type
crystal_colors = {
    "fcc": "tab:blue",
    "bcc": "tab:orange",
    "hcp": "tab:green",
    "diamond": "tab:red",
    "sc": "tab:purple",
    "": "gray",  # fallback
}

fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(5, 5))

# 1:1 reference line
ax.plot(bitm.Density, bitm.Density, lw=0.5, c="k", alpha=0.5)

# plot by crystal type
for struct, group in bitm.groupby("Crystal"):
    ax.scatter(
        group.Density,
        group.Density_est,
        marker="o",
        s=10,
        c=crystal_colors.get(struct, "gray"),
        label=struct if struct else "unknown",
        alpha=0.8,
    )

ax.set(
    xlabel="Density (g cm$^{-3}$)",
    ylabel="Estimated density (g cm$^{-3}$)",
    aspect="equal",
)
ax.legend(title="Crystal structure", markerscale=2, fontsize=8)
for n, r in bit.query('abs(Error) > 0.2').iterrows():
    if r.Error > 0:
        ax.text(r.Density, r.Density_est + 0.2, r.Symbol, ha='center', va='bottom', fontsize=10)
    else:
        ax.text(r.Density, r.Density_est - 0.2, r.Symbol, ha='center', va='top', fontsize=10)
Figure 13: Estimating density from atomic radius, crystal structure, and atomic weight: estimated vs. actual. Diagonal line shows actual.

14 Other relationships

Here are some other relationships between observables.

14.1 Directly from crystal geometry and atomic constants

  • Molar volume \(V_m\) — the volume occupied by one mole of a substance. Formula: \(V_m = M / \rho\), where \(M\) is molar mass in g·mol⁻¹ (mass of one mole of atoms), and \(\rho\) is density in g·cm⁻³. Units are usually cm³·mol⁻¹.

  • Packing fraction — the fraction of space inside a crystal lattice that is actually filled by atoms. Formula: \(f = V_{\text{atoms}} / V_{\text{cell}}\), where \(V_{\text{atoms}}\) is the combined volume of all atoms in the unit cell (from atomic radius), and \(V_{\text{cell}}\) is the volume of the unit cell (from lattice parameters). Ideal close-packed values are 0.74 (FCC, HCP), 0.68 (BCC), and 0.52 (simple cubic).

  • Nearest-neighbor distance \(d_{\text{NN}}\) — the distance between the centers of two atoms that are directly bonded (or touching in the metallic sense). Calculated from the lattice parameter \(a\) and structure: for FCC, \(d_{\text{NN}} = a / \sqrt{2}\); for BCC, \(d_{\text{NN}} = \sqrt{3}a / 2\); for HCP, \(d_{\text{NN}} = a\).

  • Number density \(n\) — the number of atoms per unit volume of the solid. Formula: \(n = N_A \rho / M\), where \(N_A\) is Avogadro’s number (6.022×10²³ mol⁻¹), \(\rho\) is density (kg·m⁻³ or g·cm⁻³), and \(M\) is molar mass in kg·mol⁻¹ or g·mol⁻¹.

Elastic properties

  • Bulk modulus \(K\) — a measure of resistance to uniform compression, in pascals (Pa). Roughly scales with bond strength and inversely with atomic volume (\(K \propto 1 / V_m\)); highest in dense covalent solids and close-packed transition metals.

  • Speed of sound \(v\) — the velocity of mechanical waves through the solid, in m·s⁻¹. Formula: \(v = \sqrt{K / \rho}\) for longitudinal waves in a simple isotropic model, where \(K\) is bulk modulus and \(\rho\) is density.

Derived from periodic table block & radius

  • Cohesive energy \(E_c\) — the energy required to separate a solid into isolated atoms, usually in eV per atom. Correlates with bonding type, crystal structure, and atomic radius: covalent networks and dense metals have the highest \(E_c\).

  • Surface energy \(\gamma\) — the energy per unit area to create a new surface, in J·m⁻². Related to cohesive energy and atomic packing: \(\gamma\) tends to be high for strongly bonded, close-packed solids and low for weakly bound molecular solids.

15 The Mendeleev package

Mendeleev is a Python package providing a comprehensive source of data with an easy Python interface, see the Documentation.

L. M. Mentel, mendeleev - A Python resource for properties of chemical elements, ions and isotopes. , 2014–present. Available at: https://github.com/lmmentel/mendeleev.

Code 
from mendeleev.fetch import fetch_table

ptable = fetch_table("elements")
slist = ['H', 'C', 'N', 'O', 'Ne']
fGT(ptable.query('symbol in @slist').set_index('name').T)
Table 7: Data available from Mendeleev.
index Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Neon
atomic_number 1 6 7 8 10
atomic_radius 25 70 65 60 160
block s p p p p
density 0.000 2.200 0.001 0.001 0.001
description Colourless, odourless gaseous chemical element. Lightest and most abundant element in the universe. Present in water and in all organic compounds. Chemically reacts with most elements. Discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1776. Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and fullerite. Carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, and a wide variety of other elements. Colourless, gaseous element which belongs to group 15 of the periodic table. Constitutes ~78% of the atmosphere and is an essential part of the ecosystem. Nitrogen for industrial purposes is acquired by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Chemically inactive, reactive generally only at high temperatures or in electrical discharges. It was discovered in 1772 by D. Rutherford. A colourless, odourless gaseous element belonging to group 16 of the periodic table. It is the most abundant element present in the earth's crust. It also makes up 20.8% of the Earth's atmosphere. For industrial purposes, it is separated from liquid air by fractional distillation. It is used in high temperature welding, and in breathing. It commonly comes in the form of Oxygen, but is found as Ozone in the upper atmosphere. It was discovered by Priestley in 1774. Colourless gaseous element of group 18 on the periodic table (noble gases). Neon occurs in the atmosphere, and comprises 0.0018% of the volume of the atmosphere. It has a distinct reddish glow when used in discharge tubes and neon based lamps. It forms almost no chemical compounds. Neon was discovered in 1898 by Sir William Ramsey and M.W. Travers.
dipole_polarizability 4.507 11.300 7.400 5.300 2.661
electron_affinity 0.754 1.262 -1.400 1.461 nan
electronic_configuration 1s [He] 2s2 2p2 [He] 2s2 2p3 [He] 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p6
evaporation_heat 0.904 nan nan nan 1.740
fusion_heat 0.117 nan nan nan nan
group_id 1 14 15 16 18
lattice_constant 3.750 3.570 4.039 6.830 4.430
lattice_structure HEX DIA HEX CUB FCC
period 1 2 2 2 2
series_id 1 1 1 1 2
specific_heat_capacity 14.304 0.709 1.040 0.918 1.030
symbol H C N O Ne
thermal_conductivity 0.181 1.590 0.026 0.027 nan
vdw_radius 110.000 170 155 152 154
covalent_radius_cordero 31 73 71 66 58.000
covalent_radius_pyykko 32 75 71 63 67
en_pauling 2.200 2.550 3.040 3.440 nan
en_allen 13.610 15.050 18.130 21.360 28.310
jmol_color #ffffff #909090 #3050f8 #ff0d0d #b3e3f5
cpk_color #ffffff #c8c8c8 #8f8fff #f00000 #ff1493
proton_affinity nan nan 342.200 485.200 198.800
gas_basicity nan nan 318.700 459.600 174.400
heat_of_formation 217.998 716.870 472.440 249.229 nan
c6 6.499 46.600 24.200 15.600 6.200
covalent_radius_bragg nan 77 65 65 nan
vdw_radius_bondi 120 170 155 152 154
vdw_radius_truhlar nan nan nan nan nan
vdw_radius_rt 110.000 177 164 158 nan
vdw_radius_batsanov nan 170 160 155 nan
vdw_radius_dreiding 319.500 389.830 366.210 340.460 nan
vdw_radius_uff 288.600 385.100 366 350 324.300
vdw_radius_mm3 162 204 193 182 160
abundance_crust 1,400 200 19 461,000 0.005
abundance_sea 108,000 28 0.500 857,000 0.000
molcas_gv_color #f2f2f2 #555555 #3753bb #f32e42 #b3e3f5
en_ghosh 0.264 0.225 0.265 0.305 0.384
vdw_radius_alvarez 120 177 166 150 158
c6_gb 6.510 47.900 25.700 16.700 6.910
atomic_weight 1.008 12.011 14.007 15.999 20.180
atomic_weight_uncertainty nan nan nan nan 0.001
is_monoisotopic nan nan nan nan nan
is_radioactive 0 0 0 0 0
cas 1333-74-0 7440-44-0 7727-37-9 7782-44-7 7440-01-9
atomic_radius_rahm 154 190 179 171 156
geochemical_class volatile semi-volatile volatile major volatile
goldschmidt_class atmophile atmophile atmophile litophile atmophile
metallic_radius nan nan nan nan nan
metallic_radius_c12 78 86 53 nan nan
covalent_radius_pyykko_double nan 67 60 57 96
covalent_radius_pyykko_triple nan 60 54 53 nan
discoverers Henry Cavendish Known to the ancients Daniel Rutherford Joseph Priestly, Carl Wilhelm Scheele Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers
discovery_year 1,766 nan 1,772 1,774 1,898
discovery_location England None Scotland England/Sweden England
name_origin Greek: hydro (water) and genes (generate) Latin: carbo, (charcoal). Greek: nitron and genes, (soda forming). Greek: oxys and genes, (acid former). Greek: neos (new).
sources Commercial quantities are produced by reacting superheated steam with methane or carbon. In lab work from reaction of metals with acid solutions or electrolysis. Made by burning organic compounds with insufficient oxygen. Obtained from liquid air by fractional distillation. Obtained primarily from liquid air by fractional distillation. Small amounts are made in the laboratory by electrolysis of water or heating potassium chlorate (KClO3) with manganese dioxide (MnO2) catalyst. Obtained from production of liquid air as a byproduct of producing liquid oxygen and nitrogen.
uses Most hydrogen is used in the production of ammonia. Also used in balloons and in metal refining. Also used as fuel in rockets. Its two heavier isotopes are: deuterium (D) and tritium (T) used respectively for nuclear fission and fusion. For making steel, in filters, and many more uses. Radiocarbon dating uses the carbon-14 isotope to date old objects. Primarily to produce ammonia and other fertilizers. Also used in making nitric acid, which is used in explosives. Also used in welding and enhanced oil recovery. Used in steel making, welding, and supporting life. Naturally occuring ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation. Primarily for lighting.
mendeleev_number 105 87 93 99 113
dipole_polarizability_unc 0.000 0.400 0.200 0.200 0.000
pettifor_number 103 95 100 101 2
glawe_number 103 87 88 97 2
molar_heat_capacity 28.836 8.517 29.124 29.378 20.786
en_miedema 5.200 6.240 6.860 nan nan
miedema_molar_volume 1.700 3.260 4.100 nan nan
miedema_electron_density 3.380 5.550 4.490 nan nan
en_gunnarsson_lundqvist 5.740 6.520 6.670 7.670 6.960
en_robles_bartolotti 5.270 6.390 5.780 6.450 6.600
production_concentration nan 46 nan nan nan
relative_supply_risk nan 4.500 nan nan nan
reserve_distribution nan 28 nan nan nan
political_stability_of_top_producer nan 24.100 nan nan nan
political_stability_of_top_reserve_holder nan 56.600 nan nan nan
top_3_producers None 1) China 2) USA 3) India None None None
top_3_reserve_holders None 1) USA 2) Russia 3) China None None None
recycling_rate None None None None None
substitutability None None None None None
price_per_kg 1.390 0.122 0.140 0.154 240
en_mullay 2.080 2.470 2.400 3.150 nan

15.1 Ionization energies

mendeleev includes other tables, e.g., isotope, radii, oxidation, phase and scattering. Here is a subset of the ionization energy data.

Code 
from mendeleev.fetch import fetch_ionization_energies
ies_multiple = fetch_ionization_energies(degree=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
fGT(ies_multiple.head(18).fillna(0), table_float_format=lambda x: '' if x==0 else f'{x:.2f}')
Table 8: Data available from Mendeleev.
atomic_number IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5
1 13.60
2 24.59 54.42
3 5.39 75.64 122.45
4 9.32 18.21 153.90 217.72
5 8.30 25.15 37.93 259.37 340.23
6 11.26 24.38 47.89 64.49 392.09
7 14.53 29.60 47.45 77.47 97.89
8 13.62 35.12 54.94 77.41 113.90
9 17.42 34.97 62.71 87.17 114.25
10 21.56 40.96 63.42 97.19 126.25
11 5.14 47.29 71.62 98.94 138.40
12 7.65 15.04 80.14 109.27 141.33
13 5.99 18.83 28.45 119.99 153.83
14 8.15 16.35 33.49 45.14 166.77
15 10.49 19.77 30.20 51.44 65.03
16 10.36 23.34 34.86 47.22 72.59
17 12.97 23.81 39.80 53.24 67.68
18 15.76 27.63 40.73 59.58 74.84

16 Appendix: All raw data

Table 9 shows all the data extracted from mendeleev used in this post.

Code 
fGT(df.drop(columns=['_label', '_color']), max_table_inch_width=20)
Table 9: All raw data.
index Atomic Number Name Symbol Atomic Weight Group Group Symbol Block Period Electron Configuration Crystal Structure Lattice Constant Atomic Radius Metallic Radius Covalent radius Van der Waals Radius Electro-negativity (Pauling) Density Electron Affinity Thermal Conductivity Discoverers Year Ionization Energy Melting Point Boiling Point Type Phase
0 1 Hydrogen H 1.01 1 IA s 1 1s HEX 3.750 25.00 nan 32.00 110.00 2.200 0.000 0.754 0.18 Henry Cavendish 1766 13.598 13.99 20.27 Nonmetals Gas
1 2 Helium He 4.00 18 VIIIA s 1 1s2 HEX 3.570 120.00 nan 46.00 140.00 nan 0.000 -19.700 0.15 Sir William Ramsey, Nils Langet, P.T.Cleve 1895 24.587 nan 4.22 Noble gases Gas
2 3 Lithium Li 6.94 1 IA s 2 [He] 2s BCC 3.490 145.00 123.00 133.00 182.00 0.980 0.534 0.618 84.80 Johann Arfwedson 1817 5.392 453.65 1,615.15 Alkali metals Solid
3 4 Beryllium Be 9.01 2 IIA s 2 [He] 2s2 HEX 2.290 105.00 89.00 102.00 153.00 1.570 1.850 -2.400 201.00 Fredrich Wöhler, A.A.Bussy 1798 9.323 1,560.15 2,741.15 Alkaline earth metals Solid
4 5 Boron B 10.81 13 IIIA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p TET 8.730 85.00 80.00 85.00 192.00 2.040 2.340 0.280 27.40 Sir H. Davy, J.L. Gay-Lussac, L.J. Thénard 1808 8.298 2,350.15 4,273.15 Metalloids Solid
5 6 Carbon C 12.01 14 IVA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p2 DIA 3.570 70.00 nan 75.00 170.00 2.550 2.200 1.262 1.59 Known to the ancients nan 11.260 nan 4,098.15 Nonmetals Gas
6 7 Nitrogen N 14.01 15 VA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p3 HEX 4.039 65.00 nan 71.00 155.00 3.040 0.001 -1.400 0.03 Daniel Rutherford 1772 14.534 63.15 77.35 Nonmetals Gas
7 8 Oxygen O 16.00 16 VIA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p4 CUB 6.830 60.00 nan 63.00 152.00 3.440 0.001 1.461 0.03 Joseph Priestly, Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774 13.618 54.36 90.19 Nonmetals Gas
8 9 Fluorine F 19.00 17 VIIA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p5 MCL nan 50.00 nan 64.00 147.00 3.980 0.002 3.401 0.03 Henri Moissan 1886 17.423 53.48 85.04 Halogens Gas
9 10 Neon Ne 20.18 18 VIIIA p 2 [He] 2s2 2p6 FCC 4.430 160.00 nan 67.00 154.00 nan 0.001 nan nan Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers 1898 21.565 24.56 27.10 Noble gases Gas
10 11 Sodium Na 22.99 1 IA s 3 [Ne] 3s BCC 4.230 180.00 157.00 155.00 227.00 0.930 0.970 0.548 142.00 Sir Humphrey Davy 1807 5.139 370.94 1,156.09 Alkali metals Solid
11 12 Magnesium Mg 24.30 2 IIA s 3 [Ne] 3s2 HEX 3.210 150.00 136.00 139.00 173.00 1.310 1.740 nan 156.00 Sir Humphrey Davy 1808 7.646 923.15 1,363.15 Alkaline earth metals Solid
12 13 Aluminum Al 26.98 13 IIIA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p FCC 4.050 125.00 125.00 126.00 184.00 1.610 2.700 0.433 237.00 Hans Christian Oersted 1825 5.986 933.47 2,792.15 Poor metals Solid
13 14 Silicon Si 28.09 14 IVA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p2 DIA 5.430 110.00 117.00 116.00 210.00 1.900 2.330 1.390 149.00 Jöns Berzelius 1824 8.152 1,687.15 3,538.15 Metalloids Solid
14 15 Phosphorus P 30.97 15 VA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p3 CUB 7.170 100.00 110.00 111.00 180.00 2.190 1.823 0.747 nan Hennig Brand 1669 10.487 852.35 704.15 Nonmetals Solid
15 16 Sulfur S 32.06 16 VIA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p4 ORC 10.470 100.00 104.00 103.00 180.00 2.580 2.070 2.077 0.27 Known to the ancients. nan 10.360 388.36 717.76 Nonmetals Solid
16 17 Chlorine Cl 35.45 17 VIIA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p5 ORC 6.240 100.00 nan 99.00 175.00 3.160 0.003 3.613 0.01 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1774 12.968 171.65 239.11 Halogens Gas
17 18 Argon Ar 39.95 18 VIIIA p 3 [Ne] 3s2 3p6 FCC 5.260 71.00 nan 96.00 188.00 nan 0.002 -11.500 0.02 Sir William Ramsey, Baron Rayleigh 1894 15.760 83.81 87.30 Noble gases Gas
18 19 Potassium K 39.10 1 IA s 4 [Ar] 4s BCC 5.230 220.00 203.00 196.00 275.00 0.820 0.890 0.501 79.00 Sir Humphrey Davy 1807 4.341 336.65 1,032.15 Alkali metals Solid
19 20 Calcium Ca 40.08 2 IIA s 4 [Ar] 4s2 FCC 5.580 180.00 174.00 171.00 231.00 1.000 1.540 0.025 nan Sir Humphrey Davy 1808 6.113 1,115.15 1,757.15 Alkaline earth metals Solid
20 21 Scandium Sc 44.96 3 IIIB d 4 [Ar] 3d 4s2 HEX 3.310 160.00 144.00 148.00 215.00 1.360 2.990 0.188 15.80 Lars Nilson 1879 6.561 1,814.15 3,109.15 Transition metals Solid
21 22 Titanium Ti 47.87 4 IVB d 4 [Ar] 3d2 4s2 HEX 2.950 140.00 132.00 136.00 211.00 1.540 4.506 0.079 21.90 William Gregor 1791 6.828 1,943.15 3,560.15 Transition metals Solid
22 23 Vanadium V 50.94 5 VB d 4 [Ar] 3d3 4s2 BCC 3.020 135.00 122.00 134.00 207.00 1.630 6.000 0.525 30.70 Nils Sefström 1830 6.746 2,183.15 3,680.15 Transition metals Solid
23 24 Chromium Cr 52.00 6 VIB d 4 [Ar] 3d5 4s BCC 2.880 140.00 119.00 122.00 206.00 1.660 7.150 0.666 93.90 Louis Vauquelin 1797 6.767 2,180.15 2,944.15 Transition metals Solid
24 25 Manganese Mn 54.94 7 VIIB d 4 [Ar] 3d5 4s2 CUB 8.890 140.00 118.00 119.00 205.00 1.550 7.300 nan nan Johann Gahn 1774 7.434 1,519.15 2,334.15 Transition metals Solid
25 26 Iron Fe 55.84 8 VIIIB d 4 [Ar] 3d6 4s2 BCC 2.870 140.00 117.00 116.00 204.00 1.830 7.870 0.151 80.40 Known to the ancients. nan 7.902 1,811.15 3,134.15 Transition metals Solid
26 27 Cobalt Co 58.93 9 VIIIB d 4 [Ar] 3d7 4s2 HEX 2.510 135.00 116.00 111.00 200.00 1.880 8.860 0.662 100.00 George Brandt 1739 7.881 1,768.15 3,200.15 Transition metals Solid
27 28 Nickel Ni 58.69 10 VIIIB d 4 [Ar] 3d8 4s2 FCC 3.520 135.00 115.00 110.00 197.00 1.910 8.900 1.156 90.90 Axel Cronstedt 1751 7.640 1,728.15 3,186.15 Transition metals Solid
28 29 Copper Cu 63.55 11 IB d 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s FCC 3.610 135.00 118.00 112.00 196.00 1.900 8.960 1.235 401.00 Known to the ancients. nan 7.726 1,357.77 2,833.15 Transition metals Solid
29 30 Zinc Zn 65.38 12 IIB d 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 HEX 2.660 135.00 121.00 118.00 201.00 1.650 7.134 nan 116.00 Known to the ancients. nan 9.394 692.68 1,180.15 Transition metals Solid
30 31 Gallium Ga 69.72 13 IIIA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p ORC 4.510 130.00 125.00 124.00 187.00 1.810 5.910 0.430 28.10 Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1875 5.999 302.91 2,502.15 Poor metals Solid
31 32 Germanium Ge 72.63 14 IVA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2 DIA 5.660 125.00 124.00 121.00 211.00 2.010 5.323 1.233 60.20 Clemens Winkler 1886 7.899 1,211.40 3,106.15 Metalloids Solid
32 33 Arsenic As 74.92 15 VA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3 RHL 4.130 115.00 121.00 121.00 185.00 2.180 5.750 0.804 nan Known to the ancients. nan 9.789 1,090.15 889.15 Metalloids Solid
33 34 Selenium Se 78.97 16 VIA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p4 HEX 4.360 115.00 117.00 116.00 190.00 2.550 4.809 2.021 0.52 Jöns Berzelius 1818 9.752 493.95 958.15 Nonmetals Solid
34 35 Bromine Br 79.90 17 VIIA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5 ORC 6.670 115.00 nan 114.00 185.00 2.960 3.103 3.364 0.01 Antoine J. Balard 1826 11.814 265.95 331.95 Halogens Liquid
35 36 Krypton Kr 83.80 18 VIIIA p 4 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6 FCC 5.720 nan nan 117.00 202.00 nan 0.003 nan 0.01 Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers 1898 14.000 115.78 119.73 Noble gases Gas
36 37 Rubidium Rb 85.47 1 IA s 5 [Kr] 5s BCC 5.590 235.00 216.00 210.00 303.00 0.820 1.530 0.486 58.20 R. Bunsen, G. Kirchoff 1861 4.177 312.45 961.15 Alkali metals Solid
37 38 Strontium Sr 87.62 2 IIA s 5 [Kr] 5s2 FCC 6.080 200.00 191.00 185.00 249.00 0.950 2.640 0.048 nan A. Crawford 1790 5.695 1,050.15 1,650.15 Alkaline earth metals Solid
38 39 Yttrium Y 88.91 3 IIIB d 5 [Kr] 4d 5s2 HEX 3.650 180.00 162.00 163.00 232.00 1.220 4.470 0.307 nan Johann Gadolin 1789 6.217 1,795.15 3,618.15 Transition metals Solid
39 40 Zirconium Zr 91.22 4 IVB d 5 [Kr] 4d2 5s2 HEX 3.230 155.00 145.00 154.00 223.00 1.330 6.520 0.426 22.70 Martin Klaproth 1789 6.634 2,127.15 4,679.15 Transition metals Solid
40 41 Niobium Nb 92.91 5 VB d 5 [Kr] 4d4 5s BCC 3.300 145.00 134.00 147.00 218.00 1.600 8.570 0.917 53.70 Charles Hatchet 1801 6.759 2,750.15 5,014.15 Transition metals Solid
41 42 Molybdenum Mo 95.95 6 VIB d 5 [Kr] 4d5 5s BCC 3.150 145.00 130.00 138.00 217.00 2.160 10.200 0.748 nan Carl Wilhelm Scheele 1778 7.092 2,895.15 4,912.15 Transition metals Solid
42 43 Technetium Tc 97.91 7 VIIB d 5 [Kr] 4d5 5s2 HEX 2.740 135.00 127.00 128.00 216.00 2.100 11.000 0.550 50.60 Carlo Perrier, Émillo Segrè 1937 7.119 2,430.15 4,535.15 Transition metals Solid
43 44 Ruthenium Ru 101.07 8 VIIIB d 5 [Kr] 4d7 5s HEX 2.700 130.00 125.00 125.00 213.00 2.200 12.100 1.050 117.00 Karl Klaus 1844 7.361 2,606.15 4,420.15 Transition metals Solid
44 45 Rhodium Rh 102.91 9 VIIIB d 5 [Kr] 4d8 5s FCC 3.800 135.00 125.00 125.00 210.00 2.280 12.400 1.137 150.00 William Wollaston 1803 7.459 2,236.15 3,968.15 Transition metals Solid
45 46 Palladium Pd 106.42 10 VIIIB d 5 [Kr] 4d10 FCC 3.890 140.00 128.00 120.00 210.00 2.200 12.000 0.562 71.80 William Wollaston 1803 8.337 1,827.95 3,236.15 Transition metals Solid
46 47 Silver Ag 107.87 11 IB d 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s FCC 4.090 160.00 134.00 128.00 211.00 1.930 10.500 1.302 429.00 Known to the ancients. nan 7.576 1,234.93 2,435.15 Transition metals Solid
47 48 Cadmium Cd 112.41 12 IIB d 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 HEX 2.980 155.00 138.00 136.00 218.00 1.690 8.690 nan 96.90 Fredrich Stromeyer 1817 8.994 594.22 1,040.15 Transition metals Solid
48 49 Indium In 114.82 13 IIIA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p TET 4.590 155.00 142.00 142.00 193.00 1.780 7.310 0.300 81.80 Ferdinand Reich, T. Richter 1863 5.786 429.75 2,300.15 Poor metals Solid
49 50 Tin Sn 118.71 14 IVA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p2 TET 5.820 145.00 142.00 140.00 217.00 1.960 7.287 1.112 66.80 Known to the ancients. nan 7.344 505.08 2,859.15 Poor metals Solid
50 51 Antimony Sb 121.76 15 VA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3 RHL 4.510 145.00 139.00 140.00 206.00 2.050 6.680 1.046 24.43 Known to the ancients. nan 8.608 903.78 1,860.15 Metalloids Solid
51 52 Tellurium Te 127.60 16 VIA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p4 HEX 4.450 140.00 137.00 136.00 206.00 2.100 6.232 1.971 14.30 Franz Müller von Reichenstein 1782 9.010 722.66 1,261.15 Metalloids Solid
52 53 Iodine I 126.90 17 VIIA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p5 ORC 7.720 140.00 nan 133.00 198.00 2.660 4.933 3.059 nan Bernard Courtois 1811 10.451 386.85 457.55 Halogens Solid
53 54 Xenon Xe 131.29 18 VIIIA p 5 [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6 FCC 6.200 nan nan 131.00 216.00 2.600 0.005 -0.056 0.01 Sir William Ramsay; M. W. Travers 1898 12.130 161.40 165.05 Noble gases Gas
54 55 Cesium Cs 132.91 1 IA s 6 [Xe] 6s BCC 6.050 260.00 235.00 232.00 343.00 0.790 1.873 0.472 35.90 Gustov Kirchoff, Robert Bunsen 1860 3.894 301.65 944.15 Alkali metals Solid
55 56 Barium Ba 137.33 2 IIA s 6 [Xe] 6s2 BCC 5.020 215.00 198.00 196.00 268.00 0.890 3.620 0.145 nan Sir Humphrey Davy 1808 5.212 1,000.15 2,118.15 Alkaline earth metals Solid
56 57 Lanthanum La 138.91 3 IIIB d 6 [Xe] 5d 6s2 HEX 3.750 195.00 169.00 180.00 243.00 1.100 6.150 0.470 13.40 Carl Mosander 1839 5.577 1,193.15 3,737.15 Lanthanides Solid
57 58 Cerium Ce 140.12 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f 5d 6s2 FCC 5.160 185.00 nan 163.00 242.00 1.120 6.770 0.650 11.30 W. von Hisinger, J. Berzelius, M. Klaproth 1803 5.539 1,072.15 3,716.15 Lanthanides Solid
58 59 Praseodymium Pr 140.91 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f3 6s2 HEX 3.670 185.00 nan 176.00 240.00 1.130 6.773 0.962 12.50 C.F. Aver von Welsbach 1885 5.470 1,204.15 3,793.15 Lanthanides Solid
59 60 Neodymium Nd 144.24 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f4 6s2 HEX 3.660 185.00 nan 174.00 239.00 1.140 7.010 1.916 nan C.F. Aver von Welsbach 1925 5.525 1,289.15 3,347.15 Lanthanides Solid
60 61 Promethium Pm 144.91 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f5 6s2 None nan 185.00 nan 173.00 238.00 nan 7.260 nan 17.90 J.A. Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin, C.D. Coryell 1945 5.582 1,315.15 nan Lanthanides Solid
61 62 Samarium Sm 150.36 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f6 6s2 RHL 9.000 185.00 nan 172.00 236.00 1.170 7.520 nan nan Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1879 5.644 1,345.15 2,067.15 Lanthanides Solid
62 63 Europium Eu 151.96 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f7 6s2 BCC 4.610 185.00 nan 168.00 235.00 nan 5.240 0.864 13.90 Eugène Demarçay 1901 5.670 1,095.15 1,802.15 Lanthanides Solid
63 64 Gadolinium Gd 157.25 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f7 5d 6s2 HEX 3.640 180.00 nan 169.00 234.00 1.200 7.900 nan nan Jean de Marignac 1880 6.150 1,586.15 3,546.15 Lanthanides Solid
64 65 Terbium Tb 158.93 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f9 6s2 HEX 3.600 175.00 nan 168.00 233.00 nan 8.230 1.165 11.10 Carl Mosander 1843 5.864 1,632.15 3,503.15 Lanthanides Solid
65 66 Dysprosium Dy 162.50 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f10 6s2 HEX 3.590 175.00 nan 167.00 231.00 1.220 8.550 0.352 10.70 Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran 1886 5.939 1,685.15 2,840.15 Lanthanides Solid
66 67 Holmium Ho 164.93 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f11 6s2 HEX 3.580 175.00 nan 166.00 230.00 1.230 8.800 nan nan J.L. Soret 1878 6.021 1,745.15 2,973.15 Lanthanides Solid
67 68 Erbium Er 167.26 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f12 6s2 HEX 3.560 175.00 nan 165.00 229.00 1.240 9.070 nan nan Carl Mosander 1843 6.108 1,802.15 3,141.15 Lanthanides Solid
68 69 Thulium Tm 168.93 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f13 6s2 HEX 3.540 175.00 nan 164.00 227.00 1.250 9.321 1.029 nan Per Theodor Cleve 1879 6.184 1,818.15 2,223.15 Lanthanides Solid
69 70 Ytterbium Yb 173.04 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f14 6s2 FCC 5.490 175.00 nan 170.00 226.00 nan 6.900 -0.020 nan Jean de Marignac 1878 6.254 1,097.15 1,469.15 Lanthanides Solid
70 71 Lutetium Lu 174.97 nan None f 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d 6s2 HEX 3.510 175.00 nan 162.00 224.00 1.000 9.840 0.340 nan Georges Urbain 1907 5.426 1,936.15 3,675.15 Transition metals Solid
71 72 Hafnium Hf 178.49 4 IVB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d2 6s2 HEX 3.200 155.00 144.00 152.00 223.00 1.300 13.300 0.014 23.00 Dirk Coster, Georg von Hevesy 1923 6.825 2,506.15 4,873.15 Transition metals Solid
72 73 Tantalum Ta 180.95 5 VB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d3 6s2 BCC 3.310 145.00 134.00 146.00 222.00 1.500 16.400 0.322 57.50 Anders Ekeberg 1802 7.550 3,290.15 5,728.15 Transition metals Solid
73 74 Tungsten W 183.84 6 VIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d4 6s2 BCC 3.160 135.00 130.00 137.00 218.00 1.700 19.300 0.816 173.00 Fausto and Juan José de Elhuyar 1783 7.864 3,687.15 5,828.15 Transition metals Solid
74 75 Rhenium Re 186.21 7 VIIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d5 6s2 HEX 2.760 135.00 128.00 131.00 216.00 1.900 20.800 0.150 48.00 Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, Otto Berg 1925 7.834 3,458.15 5,863.15 Transition metals Solid
75 76 Osmium Os 190.23 8 VIIIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d6 6s2 HEX 2.740 130.00 126.00 129.00 216.00 2.200 22.587 1.100 nan Smithson Tenant 1804 8.438 3,306.15 5,281.15 Transition metals Solid
76 77 Iridium Ir 192.22 9 VIIIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d7 6s2 FCC 3.840 135.00 127.00 122.00 213.00 2.200 22.562 1.564 147.00 S.Tenant, A.F.Fourcory, L.N.Vauquelin, H.V.Collet-Descoltils 1804 8.967 2,719.15 4,701.15 Transition metals Solid
77 78 Platinum Pt 195.08 10 VIIIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d9 6s FCC 3.920 135.00 130.00 123.00 213.00 2.200 21.500 2.128 71.60 Julius Scaliger 1735 8.959 2,041.35 4,098.15 Transition metals Solid
78 79 Gold Au 196.97 11 IB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s FCC 4.080 135.00 134.00 124.00 214.00 2.400 19.300 2.309 318.00 Known to the ancients. nan 9.226 1,337.33 3,109.15 Transition metals Solid
79 80 Mercury Hg 200.59 12 IIB d 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 RHL 2.990 150.00 139.00 133.00 223.00 1.900 13.534 nan 8.30 Known to the ancients. nan 10.438 234.32 629.77 Transition metals Liquid
80 81 Thallium Tl 204.38 13 IIIA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p HEX 3.460 190.00 144.00 144.00 196.00 1.800 11.800 0.377 46.10 Sir William Crookes 1861 6.108 577.15 1,746.15 Poor metals Solid
81 82 Lead Pb 207.20 14 IVA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p2 FCC 4.950 180.00 150.00 144.00 202.00 1.800 11.300 0.357 35.30 Known to the ancients. nan 7.417 600.61 2,022.15 Poor metals Solid
82 83 Bismuth Bi 208.98 15 VA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p3 RHL 4.750 160.00 151.00 151.00 207.00 1.900 9.790 0.942 7.90 Known to the ancients. nan 7.286 544.55 1,837.15 Poor metals Solid
83 84 Polonium Po 209.00 16 VIA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p4 SC 3.350 190.00 nan 145.00 197.00 2.000 9.200 1.900 nan Pierre and Marie Curie 1898 8.418 527.15 1,235.15 Metalloids Solid
84 85 Astatine At 210.00 17 VIIA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5 None nan nan nan 147.00 202.00 2.200 7.000 2.800 nan D.R.Corson, K.R.MacKenzie, E.Segré 1940 9.318 575.15 nan Halogens Solid
85 86 Radon Rn 222.00 18 VIIIA p 6 [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 FCC nan nan nan 142.00 220.00 nan 0.009 nan 0.00 Fredrich Ernst Dorn 1898 10.748 202.15 211.45 Noble gases Gas
86 87 Francium Fr 223.00 1 IA s 7 [Rn] 7s BCC nan nan nan 223.00 348.00 0.700 1.870 0.486 nan Marguerite Derey 1939 4.073 294.15 nan Alkali metals Gas
87 88 Radium Ra 226.00 2 IIA s 7 [Rn] 7s2 None nan 215.00 nan 201.00 283.00 0.900 5.000 0.100 nan Pierre and Marie Curie 1898 5.278 969.15 nan Alkaline earth metals Solid
88 89 Actinium Ac 227.00 3 IIIB d 7 [Rn] 6d 7s2 FCC 5.310 195.00 nan 186.00 247.00 1.100 10.000 0.350 nan André Debierne 1899 5.380 1,323.15 3,473.15 Actinides Solid
89 90 Thorium Th 232.04 nan None f 7 [Rn] 6d2 7s2 FCC 5.080 180.00 nan 175.00 245.00 1.300 11.700 nan nan Jöns Berzelius 1828 6.307 2,023.15 5,058.15 Actinides Solid
90 91 Protactinium Pa 231.04 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f2 6d 7s2 TET 3.920 180.00 nan 169.00 243.00 1.500 15.400 nan nan Fredrich Soddy, John Cranston, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner 1917 5.890 1,845.15 nan Actinides Solid
91 92 Uranium U 238.03 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f3 6d 7s2 ORC 2.850 175.00 nan 170.00 241.00 1.700 19.100 nan 27.50 Martin Klaproth 1789 6.194 1,408.15 4,404.15 Actinides Solid
92 93 Neptunium Np 237.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f4 6d 7s2 ORC 4.720 175.00 nan 171.00 239.00 1.300 20.200 nan nan E.M. McMillan, P.H. Abelson 1940 6.266 917.15 nan Actinides Solid
93 94 Plutonium Pu 244.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f6 7s2 MCL nan 175.00 nan 172.00 243.00 1.300 19.700 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, J.W.Kennedy, E.M.McMillan, A.C.Wohl 1940 6.026 913.15 3,501.15 Actinides Solid
94 95 Americium Am 243.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f7 7s2 None nan 175.00 nan 166.00 244.00 nan 12.000 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, L.O.Morgan, A.Ghiorso 1945 5.974 1,449.15 nan Actinides Solid
95 96 Curium Cm 247.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f7 6d 7s2 None nan nan nan 166.00 245.00 nan 13.510 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, A.Ghiorso 1944 5.992 1,618.15 nan Actinides Solid
96 97 Berkelium Bk 247.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f9 7s2 None nan nan nan 168.00 244.00 nan 14.780 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso 1949 6.198 1,259.15 nan Actinides Solid
97 98 Californium Cf 251.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f10 7s2 None nan nan nan 168.00 245.00 nan 15.100 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. 1950 6.282 1,173.15 nan Actinides Solid
98 99 Einsteinium Es 252.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f11 7s2 None nan nan nan 165.00 245.00 nan 8.840 nan nan Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif 1952 6.368 1,133.15 nan Actinides Solid
99 100 Fermium Fm 257.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f12 7s2 None nan nan nan 167.00 245.00 nan 9.700 nan nan Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif 1953 6.500 1,800.15 nan Actinides Solid
100 101 Mendelevium Md 258.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f13 7s2 None nan nan nan 173.00 246.00 nan 10.300 nan nan G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. 1955 6.580 1,100.15 nan Actinides Solid
101 102 Nobelium No 259.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f14 7s2 None nan nan nan 176.00 246.00 nan 9.900 nan nan Nobel Institute for Physics 1957 6.626 1,100.15 nan Actinides Solid
102 103 Lawrencium Lr 262.00 nan None f 7 [Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1 None nan nan nan 161.00 246.00 nan 15.600 nan nan A.Ghiorso, T.Sikkeland, A.E.Larsh, R.M.Latimer 1961 4.960 1,900.15 nan Transition metals Solid
103 104 Rutherfordium Rf 267.00 4 IVB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2 None nan nan nan 157.00 nan nan 23.300 nan nan A. Ghiorso, et al 1969 6.020 nan nan Transition metals Gas
104 105 Dubnium Db 268.00 5 VB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2 None nan nan nan 149.00 nan nan 29.300 nan nan A. Ghiorso, et al 1970 6.800 nan nan Transition metals Gas
105 106 Seaborgium Sg 271.00 6 VIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2 None nan nan nan 143.00 nan nan 35.000 nan nan Soviet Nuclear Research/ U. of Cal at Berkeley 1974 7.800 nan nan Transition metals Gas
106 107 Bohrium Bh 274.00 7 VIIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2 None nan nan nan 141.00 nan nan 37.100 nan nan Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1976 7.700 nan nan Transition metals Gas
107 108 Hassium Hs 269.00 8 VIIIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2 None nan nan nan 134.00 nan nan 40.700 nan nan Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1984 7.600 nan nan Transition metals Gas
108 109 Meitnerium Mt 276.00 9 VIIIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2 None nan nan nan 129.00 nan nan 37.400 nan nan Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1982 nan nan nan Transition metals Gas
109 110 Darmstadtium Ds 281.00 10 VIIIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d9 7s1 None nan nan nan 128.00 nan nan 34.800 nan nan Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1994 nan nan nan Transition metals Gas
110 111 Roentgenium Rg 281.00 11 IB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s1 None nan nan nan 121.00 nan nan 28.700 nan nan Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) 1994 nan nan nan Transition metals Gas
111 112 Copernicium Cn 285.00 12 IIB d 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 None nan nan nan 122.00 nan nan 14.000 nan nan GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research 1996 nan nan nan Transition metals Gas
112 113 Nihonium Nh 286.00 13 IIIA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1 None nan nan nan 136.00 nan nan 16.000 nan nan RIKEN 2015 nan nan nan Poor metals Gas
113 114 Flerovium Fl 289.00 14 IVA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2 None nan nan nan 143.00 nan nan 9.928 nan nan Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 1998 nan nan nan Poor metals Gas
114 115 Moscovium Mc 288.00 15 VA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p3 None nan nan nan 162.00 nan nan 13.500 nan nan Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 2003 nan nan nan Poor metals Gas
115 116 Livermorium Lv 293.00 16 VIA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4 None nan nan nan 175.00 nan nan 12.900 nan nan Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2000 nan nan nan Poor metals Gas
116 117 Tennessine Ts 294.00 17 VIIA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p5 None nan nan nan 165.00 nan nan 7.200 nan nan Joint Institute for Nuclear Research/Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2010 nan nan nan Halogens Gas
117 118 Oganesson Og 294.00 18 VIIIA p 7 [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 None nan nan nan 157.00 nan nan 7.000 0.056 nan Joint Institute for Nuclear Research 2002 nan nan nan Noble gases Gas