More facts about the Elements, mostly from Mendeleev package.
Author
Stephen J. Mildenhall
Published
2025-08-21
Modified
2025-09-02
Code
from functools import partialfrom io import StringIOfrom IPython.display import Markdown, displayfrom pandas.io.formats.formatimport EngFormatterfrom mendeleev.fetch import fetch_tablefrom greater_tables import GTef = EngFormatter(0, True)def ff(x):if x <0:return''elif x <1:returnf'{x:.3e}'elif x <100000:returnf'{x:,.2f}'else:returnf'{x:.3e}'def price_ff(x):if x <0:return''elif x <1:returnf'{x:.5f}'elif x <100000:returnf'{x:,.2f}'else:return ef(x)def yf(x):if x <0:return'ancient'else:returnf'{int(x):d}'def sea(x):if x <0:return''else:return ef(x)fGT = partial(GT, large_ok=True, year_cols=['Number'], formatters={'Sea': sea, 'Crust': ff, 'Price/kg': price_ff, 'Year': yf})# quality graphics%config InlineBackend.figure_formats = ['svg']# master data tableptable = fetch_table("elements")
Mendeleev (1834-1907) still working on the periodic table.
1 Abundance
Here are tables showing the principal elements in various parts of the universe and Earth. Abundance by mass is a measure of the proportion of a specific element’s total mass relative to the total mass of the system being considered. This is also called a mass fraction or weight fraction.
For example, if you have a 100 kg sample of the Earth’s crust, and 46.6 kg of that is oxygen, the abundance by mass of oxygen is 46.6%. This is a different value from the abundance by number, which would be the proportion of oxygen atoms relative to the total number of atoms in the sample. Since an oxygen atom is much more massive than a hydrogen atom, the mass fraction of oxygen would be high even if the number of oxygen atoms were not the highest.
To calculate abundance by mass for a compound, you use the following formula: \[
\text{Mass Abundance} (\%) = \frac{\text{Total mass of the element in the compound}}{\text{Total mass of the compound}} \times 100\%.
\] For example, in a water molecule (\(H_2O\)), the mass of two hydrogen atoms is \(2 \times 1.008 \text{ u}\) and the mass of one oxygen atom is \(15.999 \text{ u}\). The total mass is \(18.015 \text{ u}\). The mass abundance of oxygen is: \[
\frac{15.999 \text{ u}}{18.015 \text{ u}} \times 100\% \approx 88.8\%.
\] This contrasts with the number abundance, where two out of three atoms are hydrogen, so the number abundance of hydrogen is \(2/3 \approx 66.7\%\) and oxygen is \(1/3 \approx 33.3\%\).
Universe
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Hydrogen
\(\approx 75\%\)
\(\approx 92\%\)
Helium
\(\approx 25\%\)
\(\approx 8\%\)
Oxygen
\(\approx 0.1\%\)
\(\approx 0.007\%\)
Carbon
\(\approx 0.05\%\)
\(\approx 0.003\%\)
Neon
\(\approx 0.005\%\)
\(\approx 0.0003\%\)
Iron
\(\approx 0.004\%\)
\(\approx 0.00004\%\)
Nitrogen
\(\approx 0.002\%\)
\(\approx 0.0001\%\)
Silicon
\(\approx 0.001\%\)
\(\approx 0.00006\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 0.001\%\)
\(\approx 0.00008\%\)
Sun
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Hydrogen
\(\approx 74.9\%\)
\(\approx 92.1\%\)
Helium
\(\approx 23.8\%\)
\(\approx 7.8\%\)
Oxygen
\(\approx 1.07\%\)
\(\approx 0.077\%\)
Carbon
\(\approx 0.44\%\)
\(\approx 0.029\%\)
Iron
\(\approx 0.14\%\)
\(\approx 0.003\%\)
Neon
\(\approx 0.13\%\)
\(\approx 0.01\%\)
Nitrogen
\(\approx 0.10\%\)
\(\approx 0.008\%\)
Silicon
\(\approx 0.099\%\)
\(\approx 0.006\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 0.091\%\)
\(\approx 0.006\%\)
Sulfur
\(\approx 0.05\%\)
\(\approx 0.002\%\)
Earth (Overall)
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Iron
\(\approx 32.1\%\)
\(\approx 5.9\%\)
Oxygen
\(\approx 30.1\%\)
\(\approx 16.5\%\)
Silicon
\(\approx 15.1\%\)
\(\approx 15.3\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 13.9\%\)
\(\approx 15.8\%\)
Sulfur
\(\approx 2.9\%\)
\(\approx 0.6\%\)
Nickel
\(\approx 1.8\%\)
\(\approx 0.3\%\)
Calcium
\(\approx 1.5\%\)
\(\approx 0.5\%\)
Aluminum
\(\approx 1.4\%\)
\(\approx 0.6\%\)
Mantle
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Oxygen
\(\approx 44.8\%\)
\(\approx 61.2\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 22.8\%\)
\(\approx 17.5\%\)
Silicon
\(\approx 21.5\%\)
\(\approx 16.5\%\)
Iron
\(\approx 5.8\%\)
\(\approx 1.7\%\)
Calcium
\(\approx 2.3\%\)
\(\approx 0.8\%\)
Aluminum
\(\approx 2.2\%\)
\(\approx 0.9\%\)
Sodium
\(\approx 0.3\%\)
\(\approx 0.2\%\)
Potassium
\(\approx 0.03\%\)
\(\approx 0.01\%\)
Crust
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Oxygen
\(\approx 46.6\%\)
\(\approx 62.6\%\)
Silicon
\(\approx 27.7\%\)
\(\approx 21.2\%\)
Aluminum
\(\approx 8.1\%\)
\(\approx 6.5\%\)
Iron
\(\approx 5.0\%\)
\(\approx 1.9\%\)
Calcium
\(\approx 3.6\%\)
\(\approx 1.9\%\)
Sodium
\(\approx 2.8\%\)
\(\approx 2.4\%\)
Potassium
\(\approx 2.6\%\)
\(\approx 1.4\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 2.1\%\)
\(\approx 1.7\%\)
Atmosphere
Element/Molecule
Abundance (by volume, dry air)
Nitrogen (\(N_2\))
\(\approx 78.08\%\)
Oxygen (\(O_2\))
\(\approx 20.95\%\)
Argon (Ar)
\(\approx 0.93\%\)
Carbon Dioxide (\(CO_2\))
\(\approx 0.04\%\)
For the atmosphere, the number abundance is effectively the same as the volume abundance for a dry gas mixture at standard temperature and pressure due to Avogadro’s law. This law states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules.
Oceans
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Oxygen
\(\approx 85.8\%\)
\(\approx 33.3\%\)
Hydrogen
\(\approx 10.8\%\)
\(\approx 66.3\%\)
Chlorine
\(\approx 1.9\%\)
\(\approx 0.1\%\)
Sodium
\(\approx 1.1\%\)
\(\approx 0.09\%\)
Magnesium
\(\approx 0.13\%\)
\(\approx 0.01\%\)
Sulfur
\(\approx 0.09\%\)
\(\approx 0.005\%\)
Calcium
\(\approx 0.04\%\)
\(\approx 0.002\%\)
Potassium
\(\approx 0.04\%\)
\(\approx 0.002\%\)
Bromine
\(\approx 0.007\%\)
\(\approx 0.0002\%\)
Carbon
\(\approx 0.003\%\)
\(\approx 0.0003\%\)
Obviously, the ocean is mostly water (\(H_2O\)) at roughly 96.6% by mass. The remaining mass is due to dissolved solids, gases, and organic matter.
Core
Element
Abundance (by mass)
Abundance (by number)
Iron
\(\approx 85-88\%\)
\(\approx 72-76\%\)
Nickel
\(\approx 4.5-5.5\%\)
\(\approx 4.5-5.0\%\)
Lighter Elements*
\(\approx 5-10\%\)
\(\approx 19-23\%\)
The composition of the Earth’s core is speculative, as it cannot be directly sampled. The estimates are based on indirect evidence from seismology, which measures how seismic waves travel through the Earth, and by studying the composition of meteorites and the core’s magnetic field.
Lighter elements includes sulfur, silicon, oxygen, or carbon. The exact type and proportion of these elements remain a subject of active research.
2 Story by Element
Code
def print_row(r): breaks =set([2, 4, 10, 12, 18, 20, 30, 36, 38, 48, 54, 56, 71, 80, 86,88, 103, 112]) sio = StringIO() sio.write(f'{r.atomic_number}. **{r["name"]}** ({r.symbol})\n')if r.name_origin: sio.write(f'\t- {r.name_origin}\n')try: yr =int(r.discovery_year)exceptValueError: yr =str(r.discovery_year)if r.discoverers =="Known to the ancients": sio.write(f'\t- {r.discoverers}\n')else: sio.write(f'\t- Discovered {yr} by {r.discoverers} in {r.discovery_location}\n') t = r.descriptionif t: n = t.find('Discovered')if n >0: t = t[:n] sio.write(f'\t- {t}\n')# sio.write(f'\t- Abundance: crust {r.abundance_crust:6.4g} and sea {r.abundance_sea:6.4g}\n')if r.uses: sio.write(f'\t- {r.uses}\n')if r.sources: sio.write(f'\t- {r.sources}\n') ppk = r.price_per_kgtry: f =float(ppk)except:passelse: sio.write(f'\t- Approximate market price {f:,.2f} per kg\n')if r.atomic_number in breaks: sio.write('\n\n***\n\n')return sio.getvalue()cols = ['atomic_number', 'description', 'name', 'symbol', 'abundance_crust', 'abundance_sea','discoverers', 'discovery_year', 'discovery_location', 'name_origin', 'sources', 'uses','price_per_kg',]def table(): ans = []for n, r in ptable[cols].iterrows(): ans.append(print_row(r))return''.join(ans)Markdown(table())
Hydrogen (H)
Greek: hydro (water) and genes (generate)
Discovered 1766 by Henry Cavendish in England
Colourless, odourless gaseous chemical element. Lightest and most abundant element in the universe. Present in water and in all organic compounds. Chemically reacts with most elements.
Most hydrogen is used in the production of ammonia. Also used in balloons and in metal refining. Also used as fuel in rockets. Its two heavier isotopes are: deuterium (D) and tritium (T) used respectively for nuclear fission and fusion.
Commercial quantities are produced by reacting superheated steam with methane or carbon. In lab work from reaction of metals with acid solutions or electrolysis.
Approximate market price 1.39 per kg
Helium (He)
Greek: hêlios (sun).
Discovered 1895 by Sir William Ramsey, Nils Langet, P.T.Cleve in Scotland/Sweden
Colourless, odourless gaseous nonmetallic element. Belongs to group 18 of the periodic table. Lowest boiling point of all elements and can only be solidified under pressure. Chemically inert, no known compounds.
Used in balloons, deep sea diving & welding. Also used in very low temperature research.
Found in natural gas deposits & in the air (5 parts per billion) Constantly lost to space; replenished by radioactive decay (alpha particles).
Approximate market price 24.00 per kg
Lithium (Li)
Greek: lithos (stone).
Discovered 1817 by Johann Arfwedson in Sweden
Socket silvery metal. First member of group 1 of the periodic table. Lithium salts are used in psychomedicine.
Used in batteries. Also for certain kinds of glass and ceramics. Some is used in lubricants.
Obtained by passing electric charge through melted lithium chloride and from the silicate mineral called spodumene [LiAl(Si2O6)].
Approximate market price 81.40 per kg
Beryllium (Be)
Greek: beryllos, “beryl” (a mineral).
Discovered 1798 by Fredrich Wöhler, A.A.Bussy in Germany/France
Grey metallic element of group 2 of the periodic table. Is toxic and can cause severe lung diseases and dermatitis. Shows high covalent character. It was isolated independently by F. Wohler and A.A. Bussy in 1828.
Its ability to absorb large amounts of heat makes it useful in spacecraft, missiles, aircraft, etc. Emeralds are beryl crystals with chromium traces giving them their green color.
Found mostly in minerals like beryl [AlBe3(Si6O18)] and chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4). Pure beryllium is obtained by chemically reducing beryl mineral. Also by electrolysis of beryllium chloride.
Approximate market price 857.00 per kg
Boron (B)
From Arabic and Persian words for borax.
Discovered 1808 by Sir H. Davy, J.L. Gay-Lussac, L.J. Thénard in England/France
An element of group 13 of the periodic table. There are two allotropes, amorphous boron is a brown power, but metallic boron is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs’ scale) and a bad conductor in room temperatures. It is never found free in nature. Boron-10 is used in nuclear reactor control rods and shields. It was discovered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by J.L. Gay-Lussac and L.J. Thenard.
Used with titanium & tungsten to make heat resistant alloys for jets & rockets.
Obtained from kernite, a kind of borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O). High purity boron is produced by electrolysis of molten potassium fluroborate and potassium chloride (KCl).
Approximate market price 3.68 per kg
Carbon (C)
Latin: carbo, (charcoal).
Known to the ancients
Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and fullerite. Carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, and a wide variety of other elements.
For making steel, in filters, and many more uses. Radiocarbon dating uses the carbon-14 isotope to date old objects.
Made by burning organic compounds with insufficient oxygen.
Approximate market price 0.12 per kg
Nitrogen (N)
Greek: nitron and genes, (soda forming).
Discovered 1772 by Daniel Rutherford in Scotland
Colourless, gaseous element which belongs to group 15 of the periodic table. Constitutes ~78% of the atmosphere and is an essential part of the ecosystem. Nitrogen for industrial purposes is acquired by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Chemically inactive, reactive generally only at high temperatures or in electrical discharges. It was discovered in 1772 by D. Rutherford.
Primarily to produce ammonia and other fertilizers. Also used in making nitric acid, which is used in explosives. Also used in welding and enhanced oil recovery.
Obtained from liquid air by fractional distillation.
Approximate market price 0.14 per kg
Oxygen (O)
Greek: oxys and genes, (acid former).
Discovered 1774 by Joseph Priestly, Carl Wilhelm Scheele in England/Sweden
A colourless, odourless gaseous element belonging to group 16 of the periodic table. It is the most abundant element present in the earth’s crust. It also makes up 20.8% of the Earth’s atmosphere. For industrial purposes, it is separated from liquid air by fractional distillation. It is used in high temperature welding, and in breathing. It commonly comes in the form of Oxygen, but is found as Ozone in the upper atmosphere. It was discovered by Priestley in 1774.
Used in steel making, welding, and supporting life. Naturally occuring ozone (O3) in the upper atmosphere shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation.
Obtained primarily from liquid air by fractional distillation. Small amounts are made in the laboratory by electrolysis of water or heating potassium chlorate (KClO3) with manganese dioxide (MnO2) catalyst.
Approximate market price 0.15 per kg
Fluorine (F)
Latin: fluere (flow).
Discovered 1886 by Henri Moissan in France
A poisonous pale yellow gaseous element belonging to group 17 of the periodic table (The halogens). It is the most chemically reactive and electronegative element. It is highly dangerous, causing severe chemical burns on contact with flesh. Fluorine was identified by Scheele in 1771 and first isolated by Moissan in 1886.
Used in refrigerants and other fluorocarbons. Also in toothpaste as sodium fluoride (NaF) and stannous fluoride (SnF2); also in Teflon.
Found in the minerals fluorite (CaF2) and cryolite(Na3AlF6). Electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid (HF) or potassium acid fluoride (KHF2) is the only practical method of commercial production.
Approximate market price 1.84 per kg
Neon (Ne)
Greek: neos (new).
Discovered 1898 by Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers in England
Colourless gaseous element of group 18 on the periodic table (noble gases). Neon occurs in the atmosphere, and comprises 0.0018% of the volume of the atmosphere. It has a distinct reddish glow when used in discharge tubes and neon based lamps. It forms almost no chemical compounds. Neon was discovered in 1898 by Sir William Ramsey and M.W. Travers.
Primarily for lighting.
Obtained from production of liquid air as a byproduct of producing liquid oxygen and nitrogen.
Approximate market price 240.00 per kg
Sodium (Na)
Medieval Latin: sodanum, (headache remedy); symbol from Latin natrium, (sodium carbonate).
Discovered 1807 by Sir Humphrey Davy in England
Soft silvery reactive element belonging to group 1 of the periodic table (alkali metals). It is highly reactive, oxidizing in air and reacting violently with water, forcing it to be kept under oil. It was first isolated by Humphrey Davy in 1807.
There are few uses for the pure metal, however its compounds are used in medicine, agriculture and photography. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is table salt. Liquid sodium is sometimes used to cool nuclear reactors.
Obtained by electrolysis of melted sodium chloride (salt), borax and cryolite.
Approximate market price 2.57 per kg
Magnesium (Mg)
From Magnesia ancient city in district of Thessaly, Greece.
Discovered 1808 by Sir Humphrey Davy in England
Silvery metallic element belonging to group 2 of the periodic table (alkaline-earth metals). It is essential for living organisms, and is used in a number of light alloys. Chemically very reactive, it forms a protective oxide coating when exposed to air and burns with an intense white flame. It also reacts with sulphur, nitrogen and the halogens. First isolated by Bussy in 1828.
Used in alloys to make airplanes, missiles and other uses for light metals. Has structural properties similar to aluminium. But since it is flammable at temperatures of burning gasoline, its uses are limited.
Usually obtained by electrolysis of melted magnesium chloride (MgCl2) found in sea water. Each cubic mile of seawater contains about 12 billion pounds of magnesium.
Approximate market price 2.32 per kg
Aluminum (Al)
Latin: alumen, aluminis, (alum).
Discovered 1825 by Hans Christian Oersted in Denmark
Silvery-white lustrous metallic element of group 3 of the periodic table. Highly reactive but protected by a thin transparent layer of the oxide which quickly forms in air. There are many alloys of aluminum, as well as a good number of industrial uses. Makes up 8.1% of the Earth’s crust, by weight. Isolated in 1825 by H.C. Oersted.
Used for many purposes from airplanes to beverage cans. Too soft in its pure form so less than 1% of silicon or iron is added, which hardens and strengthens it.
Never occurs in free form. Obtained by electrolysis from bauxite (Al2O3).
Approximate market price 1.79 per kg
Silicon (Si)
Latin: silex, silicus, (flint).
Discovered 1824 by Jöns Berzelius in Sweden
Metalloid element belonging to group 14 of the periodic table. It is the second most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, making up 25.7% of it by weight. Chemically less reactive than carbon. First identified by Lavoisier in 1787 and first isolated in 1823 by Berzelius.
Used in glass as silicon dioxide (SiO2). Silicon carbide (SiC) is one of the hardest substances known and used in polishing. Also the crystalline form is used in semiconductors.
Makes up major portion of clay, granite, quartz (SiO2), and sand. Commercial production depends on a reaction between sand (SiO2) and carbon at a temperature of around 2200 °C.
Approximate market price 1.70 per kg
Phosphorus (P)
Greek: phosphoros, (bringer of light).
Discovered 1669 by Hennig Brand in Germany
Non-metallic element belonging to group 15 of the periodic table. Has a multiple allotropic forms. Essential element for living organisms. It was discovered by Brandt in 1669.
Used in the production of fertilizers and detergents. Some is used in fireworks, safety matches, and incendiary weapons. Also some applications for it and some of its compounds which glow in the dark.
Found most often in phosphate rock. Pure phosphorus is obtained by heating a mixture of phosphate rock, coke, and silica to about 1450 °C.
Approximate market price 2.69 per kg
Sulfur (S)
Latin: sulphur (brimstone).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Yellow, nonmetallic element belonging to group 16 of the periodic table. It is an essential element in living organisms, needed in the amino acids cysteine and methionine, and hence in many proteins. Absorbed by plants from the soil as sulphate ion.
Used in matches, gunpowder, medicines, rubber and pesticides, dyes and insecticides. Also for making sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Found in pure form and in ores like cinnabar, galena, sphalerite and stibnite. Pure form is obtained from undergound deposits by the Frasch process.
Approximate market price 0.09 per kg
Chlorine (Cl)
Greek: chlôros (greenish yellow).
Discovered 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in Sweden
Halogen element. Poisonous greenish-yellow gas. Occurs widely in nature as sodium chloride in seawater. Reacts directly with many elements and compounds, strong oxidizing agent.
Used in water purification, bleaches, acids and many, many other compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC).
Salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is its most common compound. Commercial quantities are produced by electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (seawater or brine from salt mines).
Approximate market price 0.08 per kg
Argon (Ar)
Greek: argos (inactive).
Discovered 1894 by Sir William Ramsey, Baron Rayleigh in Scotland
Monatomic noble gas. Makes up 0.93% of the air. Colourless, odorless. Is inert and has no true compounds. Lord Rayleigh and Sir william Ramsey identified argon in 1894.
Used in lighting products. It is often used in filling incandescent light bulbs. Some is mixed with krypton in fluorescent lamps. Crystals in the semiconductor industry are grown in argon atmospheres.
Continuously released into the air by decay of radioactive potassium-40. Pure form is obtained from fractional distillation of liquid air.
Approximate market price 0.93 per kg
Potassium (K)
English: pot ash; symbol from Latin: kalium, (alkali).
Discovered 1807 by Sir Humphrey Davy in England
Soft silvery metallic element belonging to group 1 of the periodic table (alkali metals). Occurs naturally in seawater and a many minerals. Highly reactive, chemically, it resembles sodium in its behavior and compounds.
Used as potash in making glass & soap. Also as saltpeter, potassium nitrate (KNO3) to make explosives and to color fireworks in mauve. Formerly called kalium (K). Vital to function of nerve and muscle tissures.
Found in minerals like carnallite [(KMgCl3).6H2O] & sylvite (potassium chloride, KCL). Pure metal is produced by the reaction of hot potassium chloride and sodium vapors in a special retort.
Approximate market price 12.10 per kg
Calcium (Ca)
Latin: calx, calcis (lime).
Discovered 1808 by Sir Humphrey Davy in England
Soft grey metallic element belonging to group 2 of the periodic table. Used a reducing agent in the extraction of thorium, zirconium and uranium. Essential element for living organisms.
Used by many forms of life to make shells and bones. Virtually no use for the pure metal, however two of its compounds are, lime (CaO) and gypsum (CaSO4), are in great demand by a number of industries.
Obtained from minerals like chalk, limestone & marble. Pure metal is produced by replacing the calcium in lime (calcium carbonate, CaCO3) with aluminium in hot, low pressure retorts.
Approximate market price 2.21 per kg
Scandium (Sc)
Latin: Scandia, Scandinavia.
Discovered 1879 by Lars Nilson in Sweden
Rare soft silvery metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table. There are ten isotopes, nine of which are radioactive and have short half-lives. Predicted in 1869 by Mendeleev, isolated by Nilson in 1879.
Scandium metal is used in some aerospace applications. Scandum oxide (Sc2O3) is used in the manufacture of high-intensity electric lamps. Scandium iodide (ScI3) is used in lamps that produce light having a color closely matching natural sunlight.
Occurs mainly in the minerals thortveitile (~34% scandium) and wiikite. Also in some tin and tungsten ores. Pure scandium is obtained as a by-product of uranium refining.
Approximate market price 3,460.00 per kg
Titanium (Ti)
Greek: titanos (Titans).
Discovered 1791 by William Gregor in England
White metallic transition element. Occurs in numerous minerals. Used in strong, light corrosion-resistant alloys. Forms a passive oxide coating when exposed to air. First discovered by Gregor in 1789.
Since it is strong and resists acids it is used in many alloys. Titanium dioxide (TiO2), a white pigment that covers surfaces very well, is used in paint, rubber, paper and many others.
Usually occurs in the minerals ilmenite (FeTiO3) or rutile (TiO2). Also in Titaniferous magnetite, titanite (CaTiSiO5), and iron ores. Pure metal produced by heating TiO2 with C and Cl2 to produce TiCl4 then heated with Mg gas in Ar atmosphere.
Approximate market price 11.10 per kg
Vanadium (V)
From Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis.
Discovered 1830 by Nils Sefström in Sweden
Soft and ductile, bright white metal. Good resistance to corrosion by alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. It oxidizes readily about 933K. There are two naturally occurring isotopes of vanadium, and 5 radioisotopes, V-49 having the longest half-life at 337 days. Vanadium has nuclear applications, the foil is used in cladding titanium to steel, and vanadium-gallium tape is used to produce a superconductive magnet. Originally discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio of Mexico City in 1801. His discovery went unheeded, however, and in 1820, Nils Gabriel Sefstron of Sweden rediscovered it. Metallic vanadium was isolated by Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1867. The name vanadium comes from Vanadis, a goddess of Scandinavian mythology. Silvery-white metallic transition element. Vanadium is essential to Ascidians. Rats and chickens are also known to require it. Metal powder is a fire hazard, and vanadium compounds should be considered highly toxic. May cause lung cancer if inhaled.
It is mixed with other metals to make very strong and durable alloys. Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is used as a catalyst, dye and color-fixer.
Found in the minerals patronite (VS4), vanadinite [Pb5(VO4)3Cl], and carnotite [K2(UO2)2(VO4)2.3H2O]. Pure metal produced by heating with C and Cl to produce VCl3 which is heated with Mg in Ar atmosphere.
Approximate market price 357.00 per kg
Chromium (Cr)
Greek: chrôma (color).
Discovered 1797 by Louis Vauquelin in France
Hard silvery transition element. Used in decorative electroplating.
Used to make stainless steel. It gives the color to rubies and emeralds. Iron-nickel-chromium alloys in various percentages yield an incredible variety of the most important metals in modern technology.
Chromite [Fe,Mg(CrO4)] is its most important mineral. Produced commercially by heating its ore in the presence of silicon or aluminium.
Approximate market price 9.40 per kg
Manganese (Mn)
Latin: magnes (magnet); Italian: manganese.
Discovered 1774 by Johann Gahn in Sweden
Grey brittle metallic transition element. Rather electropositive, combines with some non-metals when heated.
Used in steel, batteries and ceramics. The steel in railroad tracks can contain as much as 1.2% manganese. It is crucial to the effectiveness of vitamin B1.
Most abundant ores are pyrolusite (MnO2), psilomelane [(Ba,H2O)2Mn5O10] and rhodochrosite (MnCO3). Pure metal produced by mixing MnO2 with powered Al and ignited in a furnace.
Approximate market price 1.82 per kg
Iron (Fe)
Anglo-Saxon: iron; symbol from Latin: ferrum (iron).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Silvery malleable and ductile metallic transition element. Has nine isotopes and is the fourth most abundant element in the earth’s crust. Required by living organisms as a trace element (used in hemoglobin in humans.) Quite reactive, oxidizes in moist air, displaces hydrogen from dilute acids and combines with nonmetallic elements.
Used in steel and other alloys. Essential for humans. It is the chief constituent of hemoglobin which carries oxygen in blood vessels. Its oxides are used in magnetic tapes and disks.
Obtained from iron ores. Pure metal produced in blast furnaces by layering limestone, coke and iron ore and forcing hot gasses into the bottom. This heats the coke red hot and the iron is reduced from its oxides and liquified where it flows to the bottom
Approximate market price 0.42 per kg
Cobalt (Co)
German: kobold (goblin).
Discovered 1739 by George Brandt in Sweden
Light grey transition element. Some meteorites contain small amounts of metallic cobalt. Generally alloyed for use. Mammals require small amounts of cobalt salts. Cobalt-60, an artificially produced radioactive isotope of Cobalt is an important radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment agent.
Used in many hard alloys; for magnets, ceramics and special glasses. Remains hard up to 982°C. Radioactive cobalt-60 is used in cancer therapy.
Occurs in compounds with arsenic, oxygen and sulfur as in cobaltine (CoAsS) and linneite (Co3S4). Pure cobalt is obtained as a byproduct of refining nickel, copper and iron.
Used in electroplating and metal alloys because of its resistance to corrosion. Also in nickel-cadmium batteries; as a catalyst and for coins.
Chiefly found in pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8] ore. The metal is produced by heating the ore in a blast furnace which replaces the sulfur with oxygen. The oxides are then treated with an acid that reacts with the iron not the nickel.
Approximate market price 13.90 per kg
Copper (Cu)
Symbol from Latin: cuprum (island of Cyprus famed for its copper mines).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Red-brown transition element. Known by the Romans as ‘cuprum.’ Extracted and used for thousands of years. Malleable, ductile and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. When in moist conditions, a greenish layer forms on the outside.
Most often used as an electrical conductor. Also used in the manufacture of water pipes. Its alloys are used in jewelry and for coins.
Pure copper occurs rarely in nature. Usually found in sulfides as in chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), coveline (CuS), chalcosine (Cu2S) or oxides like cuprite (Cu2O).
Approximate market price 6.00 per kg
Zinc (Zn)
German: zink (German for tin).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Blue-white metallic element. Occurs in multiple compounds naturally. Five stable isotopes are six radioactive isotopes have been found. Chemically a reactive metal, combines with oxygen and other non-metals, reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen.
Used to coat other metal (galvanizing) to protect them from rusting. Also used in alloys such as brass, bronze, nickel. Also in solder, cosmetics and pigments.
Found in the minerals zinc blende (sphalerite) (ZnS), calamine, franklinite, smithsonite (ZnCO3), willemite, and zincite (ZnO).
Approximate market price 2.55 per kg
Gallium (Ga)
Latin: Gallia (France).
Discovered 1875 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in France
Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 13 of the periodic table. The two stable isotopes are Ga-69 and Ga-71. Eight radioactive isotopes are known, all having short half-lives. Gallium Arsenide is used as a semiconductor. Corrodes most other metals by diffusing into their lattice. First identified by Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875.
Used in semiconductor production. It us used in making LEDs (light-emitting diodes) and GaAs laser diodes.
Found throughout the crust in minerals like bauxite, germanite and coal.
Approximate market price 148.00 per kg
Germanium (Ge)
Latin: Germania (Germany).
Discovered 1886 by Clemens Winkler in Germany
Lustrous hard metalloid element, belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Forms a large number of organometallic compounds. Predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, it was actually found in 1886 by Winkler.
Widely used in semiconductors. It is a good semiconductor when combined with tiny amounts of phosphorus, arsenic, gallium, and antimony.
Obtained from refining copper, zinc and lead.
Approximate market price 914.00 per kg
Arsenic (As)
Greek: arsenikon; Latin: arsenicum, (both names for yellow pigment).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Metalloid element of group 15. There are three allotropes, yellow, black, and grey. Reacts with halogens, concentrated oxidizing acids and hot alkalis. Albertus Magnus is believed to have been the first to isolate the element in 1250.
Many of its compounds are deadly poison and used as weed killer and rat poison. Conducts electricity. Used in semiconductors. Some compounds, called arsenides, are used in the manufacture of paints, wallpapers, and ceramics.
Found in mispickel (arsenopyrite)
Approximate market price 1.00 per kg
Selenium (Se)
Greek: selênê (moon).
Discovered 1818 by Jöns Berzelius in Sweden
Metalloid element, belongs to group 16 of the periodic table. Multiple allotropic forms exist. Chemically resembles sulphur.
Light causes it to conduct electricity more easily. It is used in photoelectric cells, TV cameras, xerography machines and as a semiconductor in solar batteries and rectifiers. Also colors glass red.
Obtained from lead, copper and nickel refining. Conducts electricity when struck by light.
Approximate market price 21.40 per kg
Bromine (Br)
Greek: brômos (stench).
Discovered 1826 by Antoine J. Balard in France
Halogen element. Red volatile liquid at room temperature. Its reactivity is somewhere between chlorine and iodine. Harmful to human tissue in a liquid state, the vapour irritates eyes and throat.
It was once used in large quantities to make a compound that removed lead compound build up in engines burning leaded gasoline. Now it is primarily used in dyes, disinfectants, and photographic chemicals.
Occurs in compounds in sea water.
Approximate market price 4.39 per kg
Krypton (Kr)
Greek: kryptos (hidden).
Discovered 1898 by Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers in Great Britain
Colorless gaseous element, belongs to the noble gases. Occurs in the air, 0.0001% by volume. It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation. Generally not isolated, but used with other inert gases in fluorescent lamps. Five natural isotopes, and five radioactive isotopes. Kr-85, the most stable radioactive isotope, has a half-life of 10.76 years and is produced in fission reactors. Practically inert, though known to form compounds with Fluorine.
Used in lighting products. Some is used as inert filler-gas in incandescent bulbs. Some is mixed with argon in fluorescent lamps. The most important use is in flashing stroboscopic lamps that outline airport runways.
Forms 1 millionth of the atmosphere. Obtained from production of liquid air.
Approximate market price 290.00 per kg
Rubidium (Rb)
Latin: rubidus (deep red); the color its salts impart to flames.
Discovered 1861 by R. Bunsen, G. Kirchoff in Germany
Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 1 of the periodic table. Rb-97, the naturally occurring isotope, is radioactive. It is highly reactive, with properties similar to other elements in group 1, like igniting spontaneously in air.
Used as a catalyst, photocells, and vacuum and cathode-ray tubes.
Occurs abundantly, but so widespread that production is limited. Usually obtained from lithium production.
Approximate market price 15,500.00 per kg
Strontium (Sr)
From the Scottish town, Strontian.
Discovered 1790 by A. Crawford in Scotland
Soft yellowish metallic element, belongs to group 2 of the periodic table. Highly reactive chemically. Sr-90 is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28 years.
Used in flares and fireworks for crimson color. Strontium-90 is a long lived highly radioactive fallout product of atomic-bomb explosions.
Found in minerals celestite and strontianite.
Approximate market price 6.53 per kg
Yttrium (Y)
From the Swedish village, Ytterby, where one of its minerals was first found.
Discovered 1789 by Johann Gadolin in Finland
Silvery-grey metallic element of group 3 on the periodic table. Found in uranium ores. The only natural isotope is Y-89, there are 14 other artificial isotopes. Chemically resembles the lanthanoids. Stable in the air below 400 degrees, celsius.
Combined with europium to make red phosphors for color TV’s. Yttrium oxide and iron oxide combine to form a crystal garnet used in radar.
Found in minerals such as monazite, xenotime, and yttria.
Approximate market price 31.00 per kg
Zirconium (Zr)
From the mineral, zircon.
Discovered 1789 by Martin Klaproth in Germany
Grey-white metallic transition element. Five natural isotopes and six radioactive isotopes are known. Used in nuclear reactors for a Neutron absorber.
Used in alloys such as zircaloy which is used in nuclear applications since it does not readily absorb neutrons. Also baddeleyite is used in lab crucibles. Used in high-performance pumps and valves. Clear zircon (ZrSiO4) is a popular gemstone.
Found in many minerals such as zircon and baddeleyite.
Approximate market price 35.70 per kg
Niobium (Nb)
From Niobe; daughter of the mythical Greek king Tantalus.
Discovered 1801 by Charles Hatchet in England
Soft, ductile grey-blue metallic transition element. Used in special steels and in welded joints to increase strength. Combines with halogens and oxidizes in air at 200 degrees celsius.
Used as an alloy with iron and nickel. It can be used in nuclear reactors and is known to be superconductive when alloyed with tin, aluminum or zirconium.
Occurs in a mineral columbite. Formerly known as colombium (Cb). It is used in stainless steel alloys for nuclear reactors, jets and missiles.
Approximate market price 61.40 per kg
Molybdenum (Mo)
Greek: molybdos (lead).
Discovered 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in Sweden
Silvery-white, hard metallic transition element. It is chemically unreactive and is not affected by most acids. It oxidizes at high temperatures. There are seven natural isotopes, and four radioisotopes, Mo-93 being the most stable with a half-life of 3500 years. Molybdenum is used in almost all high-strength steels, it has nuclear applications, and is a catalyst in petroleum refining.
Its alloys are used in aircraft, missiles, and protective coatings in boiler plate.
Found in the minerals molybdenite (MoS2) and wulfenite (MoO4Pb).
Approximate market price 40.10 per kg
Technetium (Tc)
Greek: technêtos (artificial).
Discovered 1937 by Carlo Perrier, Émillo Segrè in Italy
Radioactive metallic transition element. Can be detected in some stars and the fission products of uranium. First made by Perrier and Segre by bombarding molybdenum with deutrons, giving them Tc-97. Tc-99 is the most stable isotope with a half-life of 2.6*10^6 years. Sixteen isotopes are known. Organic technetium compounds are used in bone imaging. Chemical properties are intermediate between rhenium and manganese.
Added to iron in quantities as low as 55 part-per-million transforms the iron into a corrosion-resistant alloy.
Made first by bombarding molybdenum with deuterons (heavy hydrogen) in a cyclotron.
Approximate market price 100,000.00 per kg
Ruthenium (Ru)
Latin: Ruthenia (Russia).
Discovered 1844 by Karl Klaus in Russia
Hard white metallic transition element. Found with platinum, used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. Dissolves in fused alkalis, and is not attacked by acids. Reacts with halogens and oxygen at high temperatures. Isolated in 1844 by K.K. Klaus.
Used to harden platinum and palladium. Aircraft magnetos use platinum alloy with 10% ruthenium.
Found in pentlandite and pyroxinite.
Approximate market price 10,400.00 per kg
Rhodium (Rh)
Greek: rhodon (rose). Its salts give a rosy solution.
Discovered 1803 by William Wollaston in England
Silvery white metallic transition element. Found with platinum and used in some platinum alloys. Not attacked by acids, dissolves only in aqua regia.
Used as a coating to prevent wear on high quality science equipment and with platinum to make thermocouples.
Obtained as a by-product of nickel production.
Approximate market price 147,000.00 per kg
Palladium (Pd)
Named after the asteroid, Pallas, discovered in 1803.
Discovered 1803 by William Wollaston in England
Soft white ductile transition element. Found with some copper and nickel ores. Does not react with oxygen at normal temperatures. Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid.
Used as a substitue for silver in dental items and jewelry. The pure metal is used as the delicate mainsprings in analog wristwatches. Also used in surgical instruments and as catalyst .
Obtained with platinum, nickel, copper and mercury ores.
Approximate market price 49,500.00 per kg
Silver (Ag)
Anglo-Saxon: siolful, (silver); symbol from Latin: argentium.
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
White lustrous soft metallic transition element. Found in both its elemental form and in minerals. Used in jewellery, tableware and so on. Less reactive than silver, chemically.
Used in alloys for jewelry and in other compounds for photography. It is also a good conductor, but expensive.
Found in ores called argentite (AgS), light ruby silver (Ag3AsS3), dark ruby silver(Ag3SbS3) and brittle silver.
Approximate market price 521.00 per kg
Cadmium (Cd)
Greek: kadmeia (ancient name for calamine (zinc oxide)).
Discovered 1817 by Fredrich Stromeyer in Germany
Soft bluish metal belonging to group 12 of the periodic table. Extremely toxic even in low concentrations. Chemically similar to zinc, but lends itself to more complex compounds.
Used in nickel-cadmium batteries. Also in electroplating steel and in the manufacture of berings. Its compounds are found in paint pigments and a wide variety of intense colors. Boiling cadmium gives off a weird, yellow-colored vapor that is poisonous.
Obtained as a by product of zinc refining.
Approximate market price 2.73 per kg
Indium (In)
Latin: indicum (color indigo), the color it shows in a spectroscope.
Discovered 1863 by Ferdinand Reich, T. Richter in Germany
Soft silvery element belonging to group 13 of the periodic table. The most common natural isotope is In-115, which has a half-life of 6*10^4 years. Five other radioisotopes exist.
Used to coat high speed bearings and as an alloy that lowers the melting point of other metals. Relativly small amounts are used in dental items and in electronic semiconductors.
Found in certain zinc ores.
Approximate market price 167.00 per kg
Tin (Sn)
Named after Etruscan god, Tinia; symbol from Latin: stannum (tin).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Silvery malleable metallic element belonging to group 14 of the periodic table. Twenty-six isotopes are known, five of which are radioactive. Chemically reactive. Combines directly with chlorine and oxygen and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids.
Used as a coating for steel cans since it is nontoxic and noncorrosive. Also in solder (33%Sn:67%Pb), bronze (20%Sn:80%Cu), and pewter. Stannous fluoride (SnF2), a compound of tin and fluorine is used in some toothpaste.
Principally found in the ore cassiterite(SnO2) and stannine (Cu2FeSnS4).
Approximate market price 18.70 per kg
Antimony (Sb)
Greek: anti and monos (not alone); symbol from mineral stibnite.
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Element of group 15. Multiple allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Used in flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, and rubber. Attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens. First reported by Tholden in 1450.
It is alloyed with other metals to increase their hardness. Also in the manufacture of a few special types of semiconductor devices. Also in plastics and chemicals. A few kinds of over-the-counter cold and flu remedies use antimony compounds.
Found in stibnite (Sb2S3) and in valentinite (Sb2O3).
Approximate market price 5.79 per kg
Tellurium (Te)
Latin: tellus (earth).
Discovered 1782 by Franz Müller von Reichenstein in Romania
Silvery metalloid element of group 16. Eight natural isotopes, nine radioactive isotopes. Used in semiconductors and to a degree in some steels. Chemistry is similar to Sulphur.
Used to improve the machining quality of copper and stainless steel products and to color glass and ceramics. Also in thermoelectric devices. Some is used in the rubber industry and it is a basic ingredient in manufacturing blasting caps.
Obtained as a by-product of copper and lead refining.
Approximate market price 63.50 per kg
Iodine (I)
Greek: iôeides (violet colored).
Discovered 1811 by Bernard Courtois in France
Dark violet nonmetallic element, belongs to group 17 of the periodic table. Insoluble in water. Required as a trace element for living organisms. One stable isotope, I-127 exists, in addition to fourteen radioactive isotopes. Chemically the least reactive of the halogens, and the most electropositive metallic halogen.
Required in small amounts by humans. Once used as an antiseptic, but no longer due to its poisonous nature.
Occurs on land and in the sea in sodium and potassium compounds.
Approximate market price 35.00 per kg
Xenon (Xe)
Greek: xenos (strange).
Discovered 1898 by Sir William Ramsay; M. W. Travers in England
Colourless, odourless gas belonging to group 18 on the periodic table (the noble gases.) Nine natural isotopes and seven radioactive isotopes are known. Xenon was part of the first noble-gas compound synthesized. Several others involving Xenon have been found since then. Xenon was discovered by Ramsey and Travers in 1898.
Used for filling flash lamps and other powerful lamps. Electrical excitation of xenon produces a burst of brilliant whtie light. Also used in bubble chambers and modern nuclear power reactors.
Obtain from the small quantities in liquid air.
Approximate market price 1,800.00 per kg
Cesium (Cs)
Latin: coesius (sky blue); for the blue lines of its spectrum.
Discovered 1860 by Gustov Kirchoff, Robert Bunsen in Germany
Soft silvery-white metallic element belonging to group 1 of the periodic table. One of the three metals which are liquid at room temperature. Cs-133 is the natural, and only stable, isotope. Fifteen other radioisotopes exist. Caesium reacts explosively with cold water, and ice at temperatures above 157K. Caesium hydroxide is the strongest base known. Caesium is the most electropositive, most alkaline and has the least ionization potential of all the elements. Known uses include the basis of atomic clocks, catalyst for the hydrogenation of some organic compounds, and in photoelectric cells. Caesium was discovered by Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen in Germany in 1860 spectroscopically. Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum. The name comes from the latin word caesius, which means sky blue. Caesium should be considered highly toxic. Some of the radioisotopes are even more toxic.
Used as a ‘getter’ to remove air traces in vacuum and cathode-ray tubes. Also used in producing photoelectric devices and atomic clocks. Since it ionizes readily, it is used as an ion rocket motor propellant.
Found in pollucite [(Cs4Al4Si9O26).H2O] and as trace in lepidolite.
Approximate market price 61,800.00 per kg
Barium (Ba)
Greek: barys (heavy or dense).
Discovered 1808 by Sir Humphrey Davy in England
Silvery-white reactive element, belonging to group 2 of the periodic table. Soluble barium compounds are extremely poisonous. Identified in 1774 by Karl Scheele and extracted in 1808 by Humphry Davy.
Barite, or barium sulfate (BaSO4), when ground is used as a filter for rubber, plastics, and resins. It is insoluable in water and so is used in X-rays of the digestive system. Barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2, burns brilliant green and is used in fireworks.
Found in barytine (BaSO4) and witherite (BaCO3), never found in pure form due to its reactivity. Must be stored under kerosene to remain pure.
Approximate market price 0.25 per kg
Lanthanum (La)
Greek: lanthanein (to be hidden).
Discovered 1839 by Carl Mosander in Sweden
(From the Greek word lanthanein, to line hidden) Silvery metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table and oft considered to be one of the lanthanoids. Found in some rare-earth minerals. Twenty-five natural isotopes exist. La-139 which is stable, and La-138 which has a half-life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. The other twenty-three isotopes are radioactive. It resembles the lanthanoids chemically. Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity, and should be handled with care.
It is used in the electodes of high-intensity, carbon-arc lights. Also used in the production of high-grade europium metal. Because it gives glass refractive properties, it is used in expensive camera lenses.
Found with rare earths in monazite and bastnasite. Monazite sand typicall contains 25% lanthanum.
Approximate market price 4.78 per kg
Cerium (Ce)
Named after the asteroid, Ceres, discovered two years before the element.
Discovered 1803 by W. von Hisinger, J. Berzelius, M. Klaproth in Sweden/Germany
Silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Four natural isotopes exist, and fifteen radioactive isotopes have been identified. Used in some rare-earth alloys. The oxidized form is used in the glass industry.
Its oxides are used in the optics and glass-making industries. Its salts are used in the photography and textile industry. Used in high-intensity carbon lamps and as alloying agents in special metals.
Most abundant rare earth metal. Found in many minerals like monazite sand [Ce(PO4)].
Approximate market price 4.57 per kg
Praseodymium (Pr)
Greek: prasios and didymos (green twin); from its green salts.
Discovered 1885 by C.F. Aver von Welsbach in Austria
Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Only natural isotope is Pr-141 which is not radioactive. Fourteen radioactive isotopes have been artificially produced. Used in rare-earth alloys.
Used with neodymium to make lenses for glass maker’s goggles since it filters out the yellow light present in glass blowing. Alloyed with magnesium creates a high-strength metal used in aircraft engines. Makes up 5% of Mich metal.
Obtained from same salts as neodymium.
Approximate market price 103.00 per kg
Neodymium (Nd)
Greek: neos and didymos (new twin).
Discovered 1925 by C.F. Aver von Welsbach in Austria
Soft bright silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Nd-144 being the only radioactive one with a half-life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. Six artificial radioisotopes have been produced. The metal is used in glass works to color class a shade of violet-purple and make it dichroic. One of the more reactive rare-earth metals, quickly reacts with air. Used in some rare-earth alloys. Neodymium is used to color the glass used in welder’s glasses. Neodymium is also used in very powerful, permanent magnets (Nd2Fe14B).
Used in making artificial ruby for lasers. Also in ceramics and for a special lens with praseodymium. Also to produce bright purple glass and special glass that filters infrared radiation. Makes up 18% of Mich metal, which is used in making steel.
Made from electrolysis of its halide salts, which are made from monazite sand.
Approximate market price 57.50 per kg
Promethium (Pm)
Named for the Greek god, Prometheus.
Discovered 1945 by J.A. Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin, C.D. Coryell in United States
Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Pm-147, the only natural isotope, is radioactive and has a half-life of 252 years. Eighteen radioisotopes have been produced, but all have very short half-lives. Found only in nuclear decay waste. Pm-147 is of interest as a beta-decay source, however Pm-146 and Pm-148 have to be removed from it first, as they generate gamma radiation.
It has been used as a source of radioactivity for thickness-measuring gages.
Does not occur naturally. Found among fission products of uranium, thorium, and plutonium.
Approximate market price 460,000.00 per kg
Samarium (Sm)
Named after the mineral samarskite.
Discovered 1879 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in France
Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Sm-147 is the only radioisotope, and has a half-life of 2.5*10^11 years. Used for making special alloys needed in the production of nuclear reactors. Also used as a neutron absorber. Small quantities of samarium oxide is used in special optical glasses. The largest use of the element is its ferromagnetic alloy which produces permanent magnets that are five times stronger than magnets produced by any other material.
It is used in the electronics and ceramics industries. It is easily magnetized and very difficult to demagnetize. This suggests important future applications in solid-state and superconductor technologies.
Found with other rare earths in monazite sand. The sand is often 50% rare earths by weight and 2.8% samarium.
Approximate market price 13.90 per kg
Europium (Eu)
Named for the continent of Europe.
Discovered 1901 by Eugène Demarçay in France
Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. Eu-151 and Eu-153 are the only two stable isotopes, both of which are Neutron absorbers.
Used with yttrium oxide to make red phosphors for color televisions.
Obtained from monazite sand, which is a mixture of phosphates of calcium, thorium, cerium, and most other rare earths.
Approximate market price 31.40 per kg
Gadolinium (Gd)
Named after the mineral gadolinite.
Discovered 1880 by Jean de Marignac in Switzerland
Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. Seven natural, stable isotopes are known in addition to eleven artificial isotopes. Gd-155 and Gd-157 and the best neutron absorbers of all elements. Gadolinium compounds are used in electronics.
Used in steel alloying agents and the manufacture of electronic components.
Found with other rare earths in gadolinite and monazite sand.
Approximate market price 28.60 per kg
Terbium (Tb)
Named after Ytterby, a village in Sweden.
Discovered 1843 by Carl Mosander in Sweden
Silvery metallic element belonging to the lanthanoids. Tb-159 is the only stable isotope, there are seventeen artificial isotopes.
It is used in modest amounts in special lasers and solid-state devices.
Found with other rare earths in monazite sand, which typically contain 0.03% terbium. Other sources are xenotime and euxenite, both of which are oxide mixtures that can contain up to 1% terbium.
Approximate market price 658.00 per kg
Dysprosium (Dy)
Greek: dysprositos (hard to get at).
Discovered 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in France
Metallic with a bright silvery-white lustre. Dysprosium belongs to the lanthanoids. It is relatively stable in air at room temperatures, it will however dissolve in mineral acids, evolving hydrogen. It is found in from rare-earth minerals. There are seven natural isotopes of dysprosium, and eight radioisotopes, Dy-154 being the most stable with a half-life of 3*10^6 years. Dysprosium is used as a neutron absorber in nuclear fission reactions, and in compact disks. It was discovered by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 in France. Its name comes from the Greek word dysprositos, which means hard to obtain.
Its uses are limited to the experimental and esoteric.
Usually found with erbium, holmium and other rare earths in some minerals such as monazite sand, which is often 50% rare earth by weight.
Approximate market price 307.00 per kg
Holmium (Ho)
From Holmia, the Latinized name for Stockholm, Sweden.
Discovered 1878 by J.L. Soret in Switzerland
Relatively soft and malleable silvery-white metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. It oxidizes in moist air and at high temperatures. It belongs to the lanthanoids. A rare-earth metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite. It possesses unusual magnetic properties. One natural isotope, Ho-165 exists, six radioisotopes exist, the most stable being Ho-163 with a half-life of 4570 years. Holmium is used in some metal alloys, it is also said to stimulate the metabolism.
It has very few practical applications; however, it has some unusual magnetic properties that offer some hope for future applications.
Occurs in gadolinite. Most often from monazite which is often 50% rare earth and typically 0.05% holmium.
Approximate market price 57.10 per kg
Erbium (Er)
Named after the Swedish town, Ytterby.
Discovered 1843 by Carl Mosander in Sweden
Soft silvery metallic element which belongs to the lanthanoids. Six natural isotopes that are stable. Twelve artificial isotopes are known. Used in nuclear technology as a neutron absorber. It is being investigated for other possible uses.
Erbium oxide is used in ceramics to obtain a pink glaze. Also a few uses in the nuclear industry and as an alloying agent for other exotic metals. For example, it increases the malleability of vanadium.
Found with other heavier rare earths in xenotime and euxerite.
Approximate market price 26.40 per kg
Thulium (Tm)
From Thule ancient name of Scandinavia.
Discovered 1879 by Per Theodor Cleve in Sweden
Soft grey metallic element that belongs to the lanthanoids. One natural isotope exists, Tm-169, and seventeen artificial isotopes have been produced. No known uses for the element.
Radioactive thulium is used to power portable x-ray machines, eliminating the need for electrical equipment.
Found with other rare earths in the minerals gadolinite, euxenite, xenotime, and monazite. Monazite is often 50% rare earth by weight and 0.007% thulium.
Approximate market price 3,000.00 per kg
Ytterbium (Yb)
Named for the Swedish village of Ytterby.
Discovered 1878 by Jean de Marignac in Switzerland
Silvery metallic element of the lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes and ten artificial isotopes are known. Used in certain steels.
Used in metallurgical and chemical experiments.
Found in minerals such as yttria, monazite, gadolinite, and xenotime. Monazite is often 50% rare earth by weight and typically 0.03% ytterbium.
Approximate market price 17.10 per kg
Lutetium (Lu)
Named for the ancient name of Paris, Lutecia.
Discovered 1907 by Georges Urbain in France
Silvery-white rare-earth metal which is relatively stable in air. It happens to be the most expensive rare-earth metal. Its found with almost all rare-earth metals, but is very difficult to separate from other elements. Least abundant of all natural elements. Used in metal alloys, and as a catalyst in various processes. There are two natural, stable isotopes, and seven radioisotopes, the most stable being Lu-174 with a half-life of 3.3 years. The separation of lutetium from Ytterbium was described by Georges Urbain in 1907. It was discovered at approximately the same time by Carl Auer von Welsbach. The name comes from the Greek word lutetia which means Paris.
It has no practical applications.
Found with ytterbium in gadolinite and xenotime. Usually obtained from monazite sand which is ofter 50% rare earth by weight and 0.003% lutetium.
Approximate market price 643.00 per kg
Hafnium (Hf)
From Hafnia, the Latin name of Copenhagen.
Discovered 1923 by Dirk Coster, Georg von Hevesy in Denmark
Silvery lustrous metallic transition element. Used in tungsten alloys in filaments and electrodes, also acts as a neutron absorber. First reported by Urbain in 1911, existence was finally established in 1923 by D. Coster, G.C. de Hevesy in 1923.
Used in reactor control rods because of its ability to absorb neutrons.
Obtained from mineral zircon or baddeleyite.
Approximate market price 900.00 per kg
Tantalum (Ta)
From king Tantalus of Greek mythology, father of Niobe.
Discovered 1802 by Anders Ekeberg in Sweden
Heavy blue-grey metallic transition element. Ta-181 is a stable isotope, and Ta-180 is a radioactive isotope, with a half-life in excess of 10^7 years. Used in surgery as it is unreactive. Forms a passive oxide layer in air. Identified in 1802 by Ekeberg and isolated in 1820 by Jons J. Berzelius.
Often used as an economical substitute for platinum. Tantalum pentoxide is used in capacitors and in camera lenses to increase refracting power. It and its alloys are corrosion and wear resistant so it is used to make surgical and dental tools.
Chiefly occurs in the mineral tantalite. Always found with niobium.
Approximate market price 298.00 per kg
Tungsten (W)
Swedish: tung sten (heavy stone): symbol from its German name wolfram.
Discovered 1783 by Fausto and Juan José de Elhuyar in Spain
White or grey metallic transition element,formerly called Wolfram. Forms a protective oxide in air and can be oxidized at high temperature. First isolated by Jose and Fausto de Elhuyer in 1783.
Made into filaments for vacuum tubes and electric lights. Also as contact points in cars. Combined with calcium or magnesium it makes phosphors. Tungsten carbide is extremely hard and is used for making cutting tools and abrasives.
Occurs in the minerals scheelite (CaWO4) and wolframite [(Fe,Mn)WO4].
Approximate market price 35.30 per kg
Rhenium (Re)
Latin: Rhenus, the Rhine River.
Discovered 1925 by Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, Otto Berg in Germany
Silvery-white metallic transition element. Obtained as a by-product of molybdenum refinement. Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconducting.
Mixed with tungsten or platinum to make filaments for mass spectrographs. Its main value is as a trace alloying agent for hardening metal components that are subjected to continuous frictional forces.
Found in small amounts in gadolinite and molybdenite. Has a very high melting point.
Approximate market price 3,010.00 per kg
Osmium (Os)
Greek: osmê (odor).
Discovered 1804 by Smithson Tenant in England
Hard blue-white metallic transition element. Found with platinum and used in some alloys with platinum and iridium.
Used to tip gold pen points, instrument pivots, to make electric light filaments. Used for high temp. alloys and pressure bearings. Very hard and resists corrosion better than any other.
Obtained from the same ores as platinum.
Approximate market price 12,000.00 per kg
Iridium (Ir)
Latin: iris (rainbow).
Discovered 1804 by S.Tenant, A.F.Fourcory, L.N.Vauquelin, H.V.Collet-Descoltils in England/France
Very hard and brittle, silvery metallic transition element. It has a yellowish cast to it. Salts of iridium are highly colored. It is the most corrosion resistant metal known, not attacked by any acid, but is attacked by molten salts. There are two natural isotopes of iridium, and 4 radioisotopes, the most stable being Ir-192 with a half-life of 73.83 days. Ir-192 decays into Platinum, while the other radioisotopes decay into Osmium. Iridium is used in high temperature apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinumpy.
Used with osmium to tip gold pen points, to make crucible and special containers. Also to make alloys used for standard weights and measures, and heat-resistant alloys. Also as hardening agent for platinum.
Found in gravel deposits with platinum.
Approximate market price 55,500.00 per kg
Platinum (Pt)
Spanish: platina (little silver).
Discovered 1735 by Julius Scaliger in Italy
Attractive greyish-white metal. When pure, it is malleable and ductile. Does not oxidize in air, insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid. Corroded by halogens, cyandies, sulphur and alkalis. Hydrogen and Oxygen react explosively in the presence of platinumpy. There are six stable isotopes and three radioisotopes, the most stable being Pt-193 with a half-life of 60 years. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and anti-pollution devices in cars. PtCl2(NH3)2 is used to treat some forms of cancer. Platinum-Cobalt alloys have magnetic properties. It is also used in the definition of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode.
Used in jewelry, to make crucible and special containers and as a catalyst. Used with cobalt to produce very strong magnets. Also to make standard weights and measures. Resists corrosion and acid attacks except aqua regia.
Produced from deposits of native, or elemental, platinum.
Approximate market price 27,800.00 per kg
Gold (Au)
Anglo-Saxon: geolo (yellow); symbol from Latin: aurum (shining dawn).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Gold is gold colored. It is the most malleable and ductile metal known. There is only one stable isotope of gold, and five radioisotopes of gold, Au-195 being the most stable with a half-life of 186 days. Gold is used as a monetary standard, in jewelry, dentistry, electronics. Au-198 is used in treating cancer and some other medical conditions. Gold has been known to exist as far back as 2600 BC. Gold comes from the Anglo-Saxon word gold. Its symbol, Au, comes from the Latin word aurum, which means gold. Gold is not particularly toxic, however it is known to cause damage to the liver and kidneys in some.
Very malleable. Used in electronics, jewelry and coins. It is a good reflector of infrared radiation, so a thin film of gold is applied to the glass of skyscrapers to reduce internal heating from sunlight.
Found in veins in the crust, with cooper ore and native .
Approximate market price 75,430.00 per kg
Mercury (Hg)
From the Roman god Mercury; symbol from Latin: hydrargyrus (liquid silver).
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Heavy silvery liquid metallic element, belongs to the zinc group. Used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific apparatus. Less reactive than zinc and cadmium, does not displace hydrogen from acids. Forms a number of complexes and organomercury compounds.
Used in thermometers, barometers, and batteries. Also used in electrical switches and mercury-vapor lighting products.
Virtually all mercury comes from cinnabar or mercury sulfide (HgS). Some sources of red cinnabar are so rich in mercury that droplets of elemental mercury can be found in random samples.
Approximate market price 30.20 per kg
Thallium (Tl)
Greek: thallos (green twig), for a bright green line in its spectrum.
Discovered 1861 by Sir William Crookes in England
Pure, unreacted thallium appears silvery-white and exhibits a metallic lustre. Upon reacting with air, it begins to turn bluish-grey and looks like lead. It is very malleable, and can be cut with a knife. There are two stable isotopes, and four radioisotopes, Tl-204 being the most stable with a half-life of 3.78 years. Thallium sulphate was used as a rodenticide. Thallium sulphine’s conductivity changes with exposure to infrared light, this gives it a use in infrared detectors.
Its compounds are used in rat and ant poisons. Also for detecting infrared radiation.
Found in iron pyrites. Also in crookesite, hutchinsonite and lorandite. Most is recovered from the byproducts of lead and zinc refining.
Approximate market price 4,200.00 per kg
Lead (Pb)
Anglo-Saxon: lead; symbol from Latin: plumbum.
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
Heavy dull grey ductile metallic element, belongs to group 14. Used in building construction, lead-place accumulators, bullets and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, bearing metals, type metals and fusible alloys.
Used in solder, shielding against radiation and in batteries.
Found most often in ores called galena or lead sulfide (PbS). Some is found in its native state.
Approximate market price 2.00 per kg
Bismuth (Bi)
German: bisemutum, (white mass), Now spelled wismut.
Discovered nan by Known to the ancients. in None
White crystalline metal with a pink tinge, belongs to group 15. Most diamagnetic of all metals and has the lowest thermal conductivity of all the elements except mercury. Lead-free bismuth compounds are used in cosmetics and medical procedures. Burns in the air and produces a blue flame. In 1753, C.G. Junine first demonstrated that it was different from lead.
Main use is in pharmaceuticals and low melting point alloys used as fuses.
It can be found free in nature and in minerals like bismuthine (Bi2O3) and in bismuth ochre (Bi2O3)
Approximate market price 6.36 per kg
Polonium (Po)
Named for Poland, native country of Marie Curie.
Discovered 1898 by Pierre and Marie Curie in France
Rare radioactive metallic element, belongs to group 16 of the periodic table. Over 30 known isotopes exist, the most of all elements. Po-209 has a half-life of 103 years. Possible uses in heating spacecraft.
Used in industrial equipment that eliminates static electricity caused by such processes as rolling paper, wire, and sheet metal.
Occurs in pitchblende from decay of bismuth.
Approximate market price 49,200,000,000,000.00 per kg
Astatine (At)
Greek: astatos (unstable).
Discovered 1940 by D.R.Corson, K.R.MacKenzie, E.Segré in United States
Radioactive halogen element. Occurs naturally from uranium and thorium decay. At least 20 known isotopes. At-210, the most stable, has a half-life of 8.3 hours. Synthesized by nuclear bombardment in 1940 by D.R. Corson, K.R. MacKenzie and E. Segre at the University of California.
Since its isotopes have such short half-lives there are no commercially significant compounds of astatine.
Does not occur in nature. Similar to iodine. Produced by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Radon (Rn)
Variation of the name of another element, radium.
Discovered 1898 by Fredrich Ernst Dorn in Germany
Colorless radioactive gaseous element, belongs to the noble gases. Of the twenty known isotopes, the most stable is Rn-222 with a half-life of 3.8 days. Formed by the radioactive decay of Radium-226. Radon itself decays into Polonium. Used in radiotherapy. As a noble gas, it is effectively inert, though radon fluoride has been synthesized. First isolated in 1908 by Ramsey and Gray.
Used to treat some forms of cancer.
Formed from the decay of radium in the earths crust.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Francium (Fr)
Named for France, the nation of its discovery.
Discovered 1939 by Marguerite Derey in France
Radioactive element, belongs to group 1 of the periodic table. Found in uranium and thorium ores. The 22 known isotopes are all radioactive, with the most stable being Fr-223. Its existence was confirmed in 1939 by Marguerite Perey.
Since its isotopes have such short half-lives there are no commercially significant compounds of francium.
Formed by decay of actinium. Chemical properties similar to cesium. Decays to radium or astatine.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Radium (Ra)
Latin: radius (ray).
Discovered 1898 by Pierre and Marie Curie in France
Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to group 2 of the periodic table. Most stable isotope, Ra-226 has a half-life of 1602 years, which decays into radon. Isolated from pitchblende in 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie.
Used in treating cancer because of the gamma rays it gives off.
Found in uranium ores at 1 part per 3 million parts uranium.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Actinium (Ac)
Greek: akis, aktinos (ray).
Discovered 1899 by André Debierne in France
Silvery radioactive metallic element, belongs to group 3 of the periodic table. The most stable isotope, Ac-227, has a half-life of 217 years. Ac-228 (half-life of 6.13 hours) also occurs in nature. There are 22 other artificial isotopes, all radioactive and having very short half-lives. Chemistry similar to lanthanumpy. Used as a source of alpha particles.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Extremely rare, found in all uranium ores. Usually obtained by treating radium with neutrons in a reactor.
Approximate market price 29,000,000,000,000.00 per kg
Thorium (Th)
Named for Thor, Norse god of thunder.
Discovered 1828 by Jöns Berzelius in Sweden
Grey radioactive metallic element. Belongs to actinoids. Found in monazite sand in Brazil, India and the US. Thorium-232 has a half-life of 1.39x10^10 years. Can be used as a nuclear fuel for breeder reactors. Thorium-232 captures slow Neutrons and breeds uranium-233.
Used in making strong alloys. Also in ultraviolet photoelectric cells. It is a common ingredient in high-quality lenses. Bombarded with neutrons make uranium-233, a nuclear fuel.
Found in various minerals like monazite and thorite.
Approximate market price 287.00 per kg
Protactinium (Pa)
Greek: proto and actinium (parent of actinium); it forms actinium when it radioactively decays.
Discovered 1917 by Fredrich Soddy, John Cranston, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner in England/France
Radioactive metallic element, belongs to the actinoids. The most stable isotope, Pa-231 has a half-life of 2.43*10^4 years. At least 10 other radioactive isotopes are known. No practical applications are known.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Does not occur in nature. Found among fission products of uranium, thorium, and plutonium.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Uranium (U)
Named for the planet Uranus.
Discovered 1789 by Martin Klaproth in Germany
White radioactive metallic element belonging to the actinoids. Three natural isotopes, U-238, U-235 and U-234. Uranium-235 is used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and weapons.
For many centuries it was used as a pigment for glass. Now it is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors and in bombs.
Occurs in many rocks, but in large amounts only in such minerals as pitchblende and carnotite.
Approximate market price 101.00 per kg
Neptunium (Np)
Named for the planet Neptune.
Discovered 1940 by E.M. McMillan, P.H. Abelson in United States
Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the actinoids. Np-237, the most stable isotope, has a half-life of 2.210^6 years and is a by product of nuclear reactors. The other known isotopes have mass numbers 229 through 236, and 238 through 241. Np-236 has a half-life of 510^3 years. First produced by Edwin M. McMillan and P.H. Abelson in 1940.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Produced by bombarding uranium with slow neutrons.
Approximate market price 660,000.00 per kg
Plutonium (Pu)
Named for the planet Pluto.
Discovered 1940 by G.T.Seaborg, J.W.Kennedy, E.M.McMillan, A.C.Wohl in United States
Dense silvery radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the actinoids. Pu-244 is the most stable isotope with a half-life of 7.6*10^7 years. Thirteen isotopes are known. Pu-239 is the most important, it undergoes nuclear fission with slow neutrons and is hence important to nuclear weapons and reactors. Plutonium production is monitored down to the gram to prevent military misuse. First produced by Gleen T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J.W. Kennedy and A.C. Wahl in 1940.
Used in bombs and reactors. Small quantities are used in thermo-electric generators.
Found rarely in some uranium ores. Made by bombarding uranium with neutrons.
Approximate market price 6,490,000.00 per kg
Americium (Am)
Named for the American continent, by analogy with europium.
Discovered 1945 by G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, L.O.Morgan, A.Ghiorso in United States
Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes. Am-243 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 7.95*10^3 years.
Americium-241 is currently used in smoke detectors.
Produced by bombarding plutonium with neutrons.
Approximate market price 728,000.00 per kg
Curium (Cm)
Named in honor of Pierre and Marie Curie.
Discovered 1944 by G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, A.Ghiorso in United States
Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid series. Nine known isotopes, Cm-247 has a half-life of 1.64*10^7 years. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1944, first produced by L.B. Werner and I. Perlman in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with Neutrons. Named for Marie Curie.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Made by bombarding plutonium with helium ions. So radioactive it glows in the dark.
Approximate market price 185,000,000.00 per kg
Berkelium (Bk)
Named after Berkeley, California the city of its discovery.
Discovered 1949 by G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso in United States
Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid series. Eight known isotopes, the most common Bk-247, has a half-life of 1.4*10^3 years. First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1949 by bombarding americium-241 with alpha particles.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Some compounds have been made and studied. Made by bombarding americium with alpha particles.
Approximate market price 185,000,000,000.00 per kg
Californium (Cf)
Named after the state and University of California.
Discovered 1950 by G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. in United States
Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to actinoid series. Cf-251 has a half life of about 700 years. Nine isotopes are known. Cf-252 is an intense Neutron source, which makes it an intense Neutron source and gives it a use in Neutron activation analysis and a possible use as a radiation source in medicine. First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1950.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Made by bombarding curium with helium ions.
Approximate market price 60,000,000,000.00 per kg
Einsteinium (Es)
Named in honor of the scientist Albert Einstein.
Discovered 1952 by Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif in United States
Appearance is unknown, however it is most probably metallic and silver or gray in color. Radioactive metallic transuranic element belonging to the actinoids. Es-254 has the longest half-life of the eleven known isotopes at 270 days. First identified by Albert Ghiorso and associates in the debris of the 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion. In 1961 the first microgram quantities of Es-232 were separated. While einsteinium never exists naturally, if a sufficient amount was assembled, it would pose a radiation hazard.
It has no significant commercial applications.
Made by bombarding uranium with neutrons.
Approximate market price nan per kg
Fermium (Fm) - Named in honor of the scientist Enrico Fermi. - Discovered 1953 by Argonne, Los Alamos, U of Calif in United States - Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes, most stable is Fm-257 with a half-life of 10 days. First identified by Albert Ghiorso and associates in the debris of the first hydrogen-bomb explosion in 1952. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Produced by bombarding lighter transuranium elements with still lighter particles or by neutron capture. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Mendelevium (Md) - Named in honor of the scientist Dmitri Ivanovitch Mendeleyev, who devised the periodic table. - Discovered 1955 by G.T.Seaborg, S.G.Tompson, A.Ghiorso, K.Street Jr. in United States - Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs to the actinoid series. Only known isotope, Md-256 has a half-life of 1.3 hours. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert Ghiorso and associates in 1955. Alternative name Unnilunium has been proposed. Named after the ‘inventor’ of the periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding einsteinium with helium ions. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Nobelium (No) - Named in honor of Alfred Nobel, who invented dynamite and founded Nobel prize. - Discovered 1957 by Nobel Institute for Physics in Sweden - Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs to the actinoids. Seven known isotopes exist, the most stable being No-254 with a half-life of 255 seconds. First identified with certainty by Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1966. Unnilbium has been proposed as an alternative name. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding curium with carbon-13 - Approximate market price nan per kg
Lawrencium (Lr) - Named in honor of Ernest O. Lawrence, inventor of the cyclotron. - Discovered 1961 by A.Ghiorso, T.Sikkeland, A.E.Larsh, R.M.Latimer in United States - Appearance unknown, however it is most likely silvery-white or grey and metallic. Lawrencium is a synthetic rare-earth metal. There are eight known radioisotopes, the most stable being Lr-262 with a half-life of 3.6 hours. Due to the short half-life of lawrencium, and its radioactivity, there are no known uses for it. Identified by Albert Ghiorso in 1961 at Berkeley. It was produced by bombarding californium with boron ions. The name is temporary IUPAC nomenclature, the origin of the name comes from Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would pose a radiation hazard. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Produced by bombarding californium with boron ions. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Rutherfordium (Rf) - Named in honor of Ernest Rutherford - Discovered 1969 by A. Ghiorso, et al in United States - Radioactive transactinide element. Expected to have similar chemical properties to those displayed by hafnium. Rf-260 was discovered by the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in 1964. Researchers at Berkeley discovered Unq-257 and Unq-258 in 1964. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding californium-249 with beams of carbon-12 and 13, which produced an isotope with half lives of 4+ and 3 sec. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Dubnium (Db) - Named after the city of Dubna, the site of the JINR. - Discovered 1970 by A. Ghiorso, et al in United States - Also known as Hahnium, Ha. Radioactive transactinide element. Half-life of 1.6s. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding californium-249 with a beam of nitrogen-15 - Approximate market price nan per kg
Seaborgium (Sg) - Named in honor of Glenn Seaborg, American physical chemist known for research on transuranium elements. - Discovered 1974 by Soviet Nuclear Research/ U. of Cal at Berkeley in USSR/United States - Half-life of 0.9 +/- 0.2 s. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding californium-249 with oxygen-18. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Bohrium (Bh) - Named in honor of Niels Bohr - Discovered 1976 by Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) in Germany - Radioactive transition metal. Half-life of approximately 1/500 s. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Obtained by bombarding bismuth-204 with chromium-54. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Hassium (Hs) - Named in honor of Henri Hess, Swiss born Russian chemist known for work in thermodydamics. - Discovered 1984 by Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) in Germany - Radioactive transition metal first synthesized in 1984 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Muenzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research at Darmstadt. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Formed by the bombardment of lead-208 with iron-58. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Meitnerium (Mt) - Named in honor of Lise Mietner - Discovered 1982 by Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) in Germany - Half-life of approximately 5 ms. The creation of this element demonstrated that fusion techniques could indeed be used to make new, heavy nuclei. Made and identified by physicists of the Heavy Ion Research Laboratory, Darmstadt, West Germany in 1982. Named in honor of Lise Meitner, the Austrian physicist. - It has no significant commercial applications. - Obtained by bombarding bismuth-209 with iron-58. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Darmstadtium (Ds) - Named after the city of Darmstadt, Germany where GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research is located. - Discovered 1994 by Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) in Germany - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding bismuth-209 with cobolt-59. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Roentgenium (Rg) - Named in honor of the physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. - Discovered 1994 by Heavy Ion Research Laboratory (HIRL) in Germany - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding bismuth-209 with nickel-60. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Copernicium (Cn) - Named in honor of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. - Discovered 1996 by GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany - It has no significant commercial applications. - Made by bombarding lead-208 with zinc-70. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Nihonium (Nh) - Named after the country of Japan. - Discovered 2015 by RIKEN in Japan - Made by bombardng bismuth-209 with zinc-70. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Flerovium (Fl) - Named after the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia. - Discovered 1998 by Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia - Made by bombarding plutonium-244 with calcium-48. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Moscovium (Mc) - Named after the city of Moscov. - Discovered 2003 by Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia - Made by bombarding americium-243 with calcium-48. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Livermorium (Lv) - Named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States. - Discovered 2000 by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in United States - Made by bombardng curium-248 with calcium-48. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Tennessine (Ts) - Named after the state of Tennessee in United States. - Discovered 2010 by Joint Institute for Nuclear Research/Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Russia/United States - Made by bombarding berkelium-249 with calcium-48. - Approximate market price nan per kg
Oganesson (Og) - Named in honor of the scientist Yuri Oganessian. - Discovered 2002 by Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Russia - Made by bombarding californium-249 with calcium-48. - Approximate market price nan per kg
3 Discovery Year, Crustal and Oceanic Concentration, Price
Atmosphere: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
The Earth’s Core: Composition, Structure and Evolution, by R. Jeanloz
Source Code
---author: Stephen J. Mildenhalltitle: Elements IIdescription: 'More facts about the Elements, mostly from `Mendeleev` package.'categories:- notes- llm- elements- sciencedate: '2025-08-21'date-modified: last-modifieddraft: falseimage: img/banner.pngnumber-sections: truenumber-depth: 2toc: truetoc-depth: 2toc-title: 'In this post:'fig-format: svgformat: html: page-layout: full code-tools: true code-line-numbers: false code-overflow: wrap code-fold: true code-copy: trueexecute: eval: true echo: true error: true cache: true cache-type: jupyter freeze: false kernel: python3 engine: jupyter daemon: 1200jupyter: jupytext: text_representation: extension: .qmd format_name: quarto format_version: '1.0' jupytext_version: 1.16.4 kernelspec: display_name: Python 3 (ipykernel) language: python name: python---```{python}#| echo: true#| label: code-setupfrom functools import partialfrom io import StringIOfrom IPython.display import Markdown, displayfrom pandas.io.formats.formatimport EngFormatterfrom mendeleev.fetch import fetch_tablefrom greater_tables import GTef = EngFormatter(0, True)def ff(x):if x <0:return''elif x <1:returnf'{x:.3e}'elif x <100000:returnf'{x:,.2f}'else:returnf'{x:.3e}'def price_ff(x):if x <0:return''elif x <1:returnf'{x:.5f}'elif x <100000:returnf'{x:,.2f}'else:return ef(x)def yf(x):if x <0:return'ancient'else:returnf'{int(x):d}'def sea(x):if x <0:return''else:return ef(x)fGT = partial(GT, large_ok=True, year_cols=['Number'], formatters={'Sea': sea, 'Crust': ff, 'Price/kg': price_ff, 'Year': yf})# quality graphics%config InlineBackend.figure_formats = ['svg']# master data tableptable = fetch_table("elements")```{width=50%}## AbundanceHere are tables showing the principal elements in various parts of the universe and Earth. Abundance by mass is a measure of the proportion of a specific element's total mass relative to the total mass of the system being considered. This is also called a **mass fraction** or **weight fraction**.For example, if you have a 100 kg sample of the Earth's crust, and 46.6 kg of that is oxygen, the abundance by mass of oxygen is 46.6%. This is a different value from the **abundance by number**, which would be the proportion of oxygen atoms relative to the total number of atoms in the sample. Since an oxygen atom is much more massive than a hydrogen atom, the mass fraction of oxygen would be high even if the number of oxygen atoms were not the highest.To calculate abundance by mass for a compound, you use the following formula:$$\text{Mass Abundance} (\%) = \frac{\text{Total mass of the element in the compound}}{\text{Total mass of the compound}} \times 100\%.$$For example, in a water molecule ($H_2O$), the mass of two hydrogen atoms is $2 \times 1.008 \text{ u}$ and the mass of one oxygen atom is $15.999 \text{ u}$. The total mass is $18.015 \text{ u}$. The mass abundance of oxygen is:$$\frac{15.999 \text{ u}}{18.015 \text{ u}} \times 100\% \approx 88.8\%.$$This contrasts with the number abundance, where two out of three atoms are hydrogen, so the number abundance of hydrogen is $2/3 \approx 66.7\%$ and oxygen is $1/3 \approx 33.3\%$.### Universe {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Hydrogen | $\approx 75\%$ | $\approx 92\%$ || Helium | $\approx 25\%$ | $\approx 8\%$ || Oxygen | $\approx 0.1\%$ | $\approx 0.007\%$ || Carbon | $\approx 0.05\%$ | $\approx 0.003\%$ || Neon | $\approx 0.005\%$ | $\approx 0.0003\%$ || Iron | $\approx 0.004\%$ | $\approx 0.00004\%$ || Nitrogen | $\approx 0.002\%$ | $\approx 0.0001\%$ || Silicon | $\approx 0.001\%$ | $\approx 0.00006\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 0.001\%$ | $\approx 0.00008\%$ |### Sun {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Hydrogen | $\approx 74.9\%$ | $\approx 92.1\%$ || Helium | $\approx 23.8\%$ | $\approx 7.8\%$ || Oxygen | $\approx 1.07\%$ | $\approx 0.077\%$ || Carbon | $\approx 0.44\%$ | $\approx 0.029\%$ || Iron | $\approx 0.14\%$ | $\approx 0.003\%$ || Neon | $\approx 0.13\%$ | $\approx 0.01\%$ || Nitrogen | $\approx 0.10\%$ | $\approx 0.008\%$ || Silicon | $\approx 0.099\%$ | $\approx 0.006\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 0.091\%$ | $\approx 0.006\%$ || Sulfur | $\approx 0.05\%$ | $\approx 0.002\%$ |### Earth (Overall) {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Iron | $\approx 32.1\%$ | $\approx 5.9\%$ || Oxygen | $\approx 30.1\%$ | $\approx 16.5\%$ || Silicon | $\approx 15.1\%$ | $\approx 15.3\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 13.9\%$ | $\approx 15.8\%$ || Sulfur | $\approx 2.9\%$ | $\approx 0.6\%$ || Nickel | $\approx 1.8\%$ | $\approx 0.3\%$ || Calcium | $\approx 1.5\%$ | $\approx 0.5\%$ || Aluminum | $\approx 1.4\%$ | $\approx 0.6\%$ |### Mantle {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Oxygen | $\approx 44.8\%$ | $\approx 61.2\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 22.8\%$ | $\approx 17.5\%$ || Silicon | $\approx 21.5\%$ | $\approx 16.5\%$ || Iron | $\approx 5.8\%$ | $\approx 1.7\%$ || Calcium | $\approx 2.3\%$ | $\approx 0.8\%$ || Aluminum | $\approx 2.2\%$ | $\approx 0.9\%$ || Sodium | $\approx 0.3\%$ | $\approx 0.2\%$ || Potassium | $\approx 0.03\%$ | $\approx 0.01\%$ |### Crust {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Oxygen | $\approx 46.6\%$ | $\approx 62.6\%$ || Silicon | $\approx 27.7\%$ | $\approx 21.2\%$ || Aluminum | $\approx 8.1\%$ | $\approx 6.5\%$ || Iron | $\approx 5.0\%$ | $\approx 1.9\%$ || Calcium | $\approx 3.6\%$ | $\approx 1.9\%$ || Sodium | $\approx 2.8\%$ | $\approx 2.4\%$ || Potassium | $\approx 2.6\%$ | $\approx 1.4\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 2.1\%$ | $\approx 1.7\%$ |### Atmosphere {.mt-3}| Element/Molecule | Abundance (by volume, dry air) ||:------------------------|:-------------------------------|| Nitrogen ($N_2$) | $\approx 78.08\%$ || Oxygen ($O_2$) | $\approx 20.95\%$ || Argon (Ar) | $\approx 0.93\%$ || Carbon Dioxide ($CO_2$) | $\approx 0.04\%$ |For the atmosphere, the number abundance is effectively the same as the volume abundance for a dry gas mixture at standard temperature and pressure due to Avogadro's law. This law states that equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules.### Oceans {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:----------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Oxygen | $\approx 85.8\%$ | $\approx 33.3\%$ || Hydrogen | $\approx 10.8\%$ | $\approx 66.3\%$ || Chlorine | $\approx 1.9\%$ | $\approx 0.1\%$ || Sodium | $\approx 1.1\%$ | $\approx 0.09\%$ || Magnesium | $\approx 0.13\%$ | $\approx 0.01\%$ || Sulfur | $\approx 0.09\%$ | $\approx 0.005\%$ || Calcium | $\approx 0.04\%$ | $\approx 0.002\%$ || Potassium | $\approx 0.04\%$ | $\approx 0.002\%$ || Bromine | $\approx 0.007\%$ | $\approx 0.0002\%$ || Carbon | $\approx 0.003\%$ | $\approx 0.0003\%$ |Obviously, the ocean is mostly water ($H_2O$) at roughly 96.6% by mass. The remaining mass is due to dissolved solids, gases, and organic matter.### Core {.mt-3}| Element | Abundance (by mass) | Abundance (by number) ||:------------------|:--------------------|:----------------------|| Iron | $\approx 85-88\%$ | $\approx 72-76\%$ || Nickel | $\approx 4.5-5.5\%$ | $\approx 4.5-5.0\%$ || Lighter Elements* | $\approx 5-10\%$ | $\approx 19-23\%$ |The composition of the Earth's core is speculative, as it cannot be directly sampled. The estimates are based on indirect evidence from seismology, which measures how seismic waves travel through the Earth, and by studying the composition of meteorites and the core's magnetic field.*Lighter elements* includes **sulfur**, **silicon**, **oxygen**, or **carbon**. The exact type and proportion of these elements remain a subject of active research.## Story by Element {.mt-5}```{python}#| echo: true#| label: story#| results: as-isdef print_row(r): breaks =set([2, 4, 10, 12, 18, 20, 30, 36, 38, 48, 54, 56, 71, 80, 86,88, 103, 112]) sio = StringIO() sio.write(f'{r.atomic_number}. **{r["name"]}** ({r.symbol})\n')if r.name_origin: sio.write(f'\t- {r.name_origin}\n')try: yr =int(r.discovery_year)exceptValueError: yr =str(r.discovery_year)if r.discoverers =="Known to the ancients": sio.write(f'\t- {r.discoverers}\n')else: sio.write(f'\t- Discovered {yr} by {r.discoverers} in {r.discovery_location}\n') t = r.descriptionif t: n = t.find('Discovered')if n >0: t = t[:n] sio.write(f'\t- {t}\n')# sio.write(f'\t- Abundance: crust {r.abundance_crust:6.4g} and sea {r.abundance_sea:6.4g}\n')if r.uses: sio.write(f'\t- {r.uses}\n')if r.sources: sio.write(f'\t- {r.sources}\n') ppk = r.price_per_kgtry: f =float(ppk)except:passelse: sio.write(f'\t- Approximate market price {f:,.2f} per kg\n')if r.atomic_number in breaks: sio.write('\n\n***\n\n')return sio.getvalue()cols = ['atomic_number', 'description', 'name', 'symbol', 'abundance_crust', 'abundance_sea','discoverers', 'discovery_year', 'discovery_location', 'name_origin', 'sources', 'uses','price_per_kg',]def table(): ans = []for n, r in ptable[cols].iterrows(): ans.append(print_row(r))return''.join(ans)Markdown(table())```## Discovery Year, Crustal and Oceanic Concentration, PriceFrom `mendeleev` package.```{python}#| echo: true#| label: tbl-ycocp#| tbl-cap: "Discovery year, crustal (mg/kg) and oceanic concentration (mg/L), and price (USD per kg) from the Mendeleev package."bit = ptable.loc[:, ['name', 'symbol', 'atomic_number', 'discovery_year', 'abundance_crust', 'abundance_sea', 'price_per_kg']]bit.columns = ['Name', 'Symbol', 'Number', 'Year', 'Crust', 'Sea', 'Price']bit = bit.set_index(['Number', 'Name', 'Symbol'])fGT(bit.fillna(-1))```## Sources* `mendeleev` package, https://mendeleev.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html* **Universe & Sun:** NASA, [Nave et al. (2021), *The Solar Abundance of Oxygen*](https://www.google.com/search?q=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ac0c63)* **Earth (Overall), Mantle, & Crust:** [Rudnick & Gao (2003), *Composition of the continental crust*](https://www.google.com/search?q=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-95286-3_6), U.S. Geological Survey* **Atmosphere:** National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)* *The Earth's Core: Composition, Structure and Evolution*, by R. Jeanloz
